粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所的应用与推广

粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所利用粪、尿不同的生物特性 ,分别收集、处理、利用。卫生学评价结果确认是一种防蝇、无臭、可使粪便无害化 ,不污染外环境 ,节水 ,可回收尿肥、粪肥 ,适用范围广泛的生态卫生厕所 ,为农村提供了一种新的卫生厕所模式。有利于改变我国部分地区农村环境卫生与改厕工作的落后状况 ,有效控制、降低肠道传染病的发病率。     

粪尿分集式生态厕所的建造原理及应用

多年来，水冲式厕所在人们心目中一直是完美的厕所类型。近年来，很多科学家对其“完美性”提出疑问，水冲厕所只是污染物的转移而非处理，要应用大量的水，并污染环境。我国是极度缺水的国家之一，污水处理比率很低，为此需要发展多种类型的卫生设施，不必追求“水冲式”户厕，在农村更是如此。粪尿分集式生态厕所是技术改良后的现代早厕。这种实践源于中国，西方一些国家由此受到启发。从环境保护的高度重新对这种早厕进行改革，     

不同覆盖物粪便无害化效果的评价

使用粪便覆盖物是粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所的必然要求，有关资料表明，草木灰是满足卫生、农业要求的覆盖物，但由于燃料结构的改变和生态保护的要求，使得今后草木灰会越来越少，尤其是一些城市的郊区无法获得，故寻找草木灰的替代物就显得尤为重要。为了解1号和2号覆盖物粪便无害化效果及村民的接受程度，为今后推广应用提供科学依据，我们于2001年至2002年对其进行了监测。     

安徽省粪尿分集厕所扩展试点研究的评估分析

目的　评估安徽省 /阜阳市试点建设“粪尿分集厕所”新技术的适宜性、取得的经验教训和试点本身的示范效益。方法　根据技术要点在阜阳市粪尿分集厕所试点现场入户调查 ,对相关文献档案进行分析。结果　安徽省 /阜阳市试点建设“粪尿分集厕所”数量超过预定目标 ,技术有改进有创新 ,管理有新意 ,推进了当地改厕工作 ,在省内外发挥了示范作用。但有 1 /4农户厕所使用维护不合要求。结论　试点项目丰富了“粪尿分集厕所”的知识 ,发现了需要进一步改进之处 ,明确了推广这种厕所技术的 4个条件 ,建议在安徽北方农村继续扩大试点     

粪尿分离式生态卫生厕所健康教育效果评价

1997年,广西在瑞典国际发展合作署(SIDA)的支持下,引进粪尿分离式生态卫生厕所技术,最早在广西田阳县开展试点,之后在桂林市郊区、邕宁县等地推广,取得较大的卫生、生态以及综合社会效益.2000年,利用广西科技攻关课题<农村生态卫生厕所卫生效果评价及综合效益分析研究>和粪尿分离式生态卫生厕所在桂林市郊区、邕宁县等地推广应用的机会,对健康教育在改厕过程中的效果进行评价分析,现报道如下.     

电加热粪尿分集式船用生态卫生厕所的卫生微生物学评价

目的评价电加热粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所对微生物的灭活效果,确定其在血吸虫病流行地区渔船上应用的可行性。方法在实验室模拟实际使用条件,以粪大肠菌、蛔虫卵为指示生物,按照《粪便无害化卫生标准》(GB 5759-1987)对厕所的卫生学效果进行评价。结果在温度升高到50℃、维持30 min以上,能够使粪大肠菌值从4×10-8提高到0.011 1,蛔虫卵死亡率>95.44%,达到《粪便无害化卫生标准》(GB 5759-1987)的要求。结论电加热粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所是一种可使粪便就地无害化、可在血吸虫病流行地区的渔船上推广应用的     

粪尿分集技术的研究与应用

目的 倡导生态卫生理论与实践，改善农村卫生环境与利于发展循环经济。方法 采用粪尿分集技术处理人畜粪便等废弃物。结果 粪尿分集式生态卫生厕所至2003年底在16个省市农村推广109万座。结论 粪尿分集技术应用是解决粪便无害化处理的一项新的适宜技术，是控制常见肠道寄生虫传染病经济有效的手段，是生态卫生理论的成功实践。     

阁楼式堆肥厕所无害化效果研究

目的评价阁楼式堆肥厕所无害化效果。方法按粪便无害化标准对阁楼式堆肥厕所粪大肠菌群和蛔虫卵的去除效果进行检测，对沙门氏菌噬菌体28B的去除效果进行试验研究。结果在90d的堆肥时间内，沙门氏菌噬菌体28B浓度由初始浓度108pfu／g降低到不能检出，蛔虫卵死亡率可达99．8％，粪大肠菌值从初始10^-9，升至10^-2。结论阁楼式堆肥式厕所是好氧发酵的一种厕所模式，可使粪便中的病原体和寄生虫卵失活，达到粪便无害化卫生标准的要求。     

广东省农村无害化卫生厕所效果评价

目的调查2011年广东省无害化卫生厕所建造和使用情况,评价其对粪便处理的卫生效果,为指导广东省农村改厕工作提供科学依据。方法按分层整群抽样的方法,在全省随机抽取3个县,每个县随机调查3个改厕村和3个未改厕村,每村随机抽取30户,现场勘察三格式化粪池考察其建造是否符合要求。随机采集45座无害化卫生厕所和非卫生厕所粪液样品,实验室检测粪大肠菌群（FC）、寄生虫卵、化学需氧量（CODcr）、氨氮（NH3-N）、硝酸盐氮和亚硝酸盐氮等指标。计算进、出口FC的平均合格率,寄生虫卵检出率、CODcr、NH3-N、硝酸盐氮和亚硝酸盐氮平均去除率。结果在调查指标中,改厕户的合格率明显高于未改厕户。135份粪液样品中,卫生厕所进、出口及非卫生厕所FC平均合格率分别为93．33％、100％和86．67％,寄生虫卵检出率分别为55．56％、4．44％和51．11％,出口CODcr、NH3-N、硝酸盐氮和亚硝酸盐氮平均去除率分别为58．02％、42．93％、34．08％和85．00％。结论2011年广东省无害化卫生厕所的无害化处理效果明显,其对粪便中Fc和寄生虫卵有很好的杀灭作用,但对CODcr、NH3-N、硝酸盐氮和亚硝酸盐氮的去除效果不够理想,需做进一步处理。     

嵊州市农村卫生厕所无害化效果评价

目的对嵊州市两种农村改厕处理污水模式的实际效果进行评价,为农村改厕工作提供科学依据。方法采用随机抽样方法抽取10个三格式和四格式的卫生厕所,对其基本情况、常规监测指标、污染物指标进行监测与评价。结果嵊州市厕所的常规监测指标基本能达到无害化卫生标准,氨氮、COD、BOD5指标达标率较低;三格式卫生厕所的氨氮、总磷、COD和BOD5等指标的无害化效果好于四格式化卫生厕所。结论部分卫生学与污染指标去除率和达标率不高,三格式无害化效果优于四格式厕所,应加强农村改厕建造模式工艺设计、技术指导和验收,提高无害化效果。     

Improper disposal of hazardous substances and resulting injuries--selected States, January 2001-March 2005

Many consumer and industrial products, including fuels, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, paints, and household cleaning disinfectants, contain hazardous substances. Improper disposal of these materials can lead to unexpected releases of toxins that are hazardous to humans and harmful to the environment. This report summarizes all known events involving improper disposal of hazardous substances reported to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) during January 2001-March 2005, describes four illustrative case reports, and provides recommendations for preventing injury resulting from improper disposal.     

Interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases among young children: improving water supplies and excreta disposal facilities

A theoretical model is proposed that relates the level of ingestion of diarrhoea-causing pathogens to the frequency of diarrhoea in the community. The implications of this model are that, in poor communities with inadequate water supply and excreta disposal, reducing the level of enteric pathogen ingestion by a given amount will have a greater impact on diarrhoea mortality rates than on morbidity rates, a greater impact on the incidence rate of severe diarrhoea than on that of mild diarrhoea, and a greater impact on diarrhoea caused by pathogens having high infectious doses than on diarrhoea caused by pathogens of a low infectious dose. The impact of water supply and sanitation on diarrhoea, related infections, nutritional status, and mortality is analysed by reviewing 67 studies from 28 countries. The median reductions in diarrhoea morbidity rates are 22% from all studies and 27% from a few better-designed studies. All studies of the impact on total mortality rates show a median reduction of 21%, while the few better-designed studies give a median reduction of 30%. Improvements in water quality have less of an impact than improvements in water availability or excreta disposal.     

Strontium content of mammalian bone, diet and excreta

In only a few studies have common strontium dietary levels been correlated with the bone content. Such studies have been made for material of human origin and laboratory rabbits in the St. Louis area and for the Howler monkey (Alouatta) from Argentina. Common Sr content, as mg Sr/g Ca, for selected human calcified tissues were as follows: fetal mandible, 0.57; deciduous 2nd molar, 0.47; deciduous incisor, 0.33; permanent bicuspid, 0.32; and adult bone, 0.46. Sr analyses of four commercial milk product saples and four composite human diets averaged 1.07 and 1.51 mg Sr/g Ca, respectively. Bone Sr for rabbit and monkey was 0.85 and 1.27 while consuming herbaceous diets containing 4 and 5.5 mg Sr/g Ca, respectively. For rabbits grown on the above diet, feces and urine contained 6 and 1.8 mg Sr/g Ca indicating discrimination against Sr relative to Ca by the excretory systems. The “observed ratio” (bone Sr/Ca:diet Sr/Ca) were: fetal mandible, 0.38; deciduous teeth, 0.65; permanent bicuspids, 0.27; adult bone, 0.31; Alouatta bone, 0.23; and rabbit bone, 0.21. These values are comparable to values previously obtained from measurements of ⁹⁰Sr fallout.     

Aerobic degradation of tylosin in cattle,chicken, and swine excreta

Tylosin, a fermentation-derived macrolide antibiotic, was tested to determine its aerobic degradation rate in cattle, chicken, and swine excreta. For chicken, excreta from a hen administered 14C-tylosin as part of a metabolism study were used. For cattle and swine, 14C-tylosin was added to control excreta. The formation of 14C volatile breakdown products and 14CO2 was not observed throughout the study. Material balance for the carbon-14 label ranged between 94% and 104%. Initial, day-0, concentrations of tylosin-A averaged 119.52+/-4.39, 35.01+/-1.34, and 62.82+/-2.11 microg/g (dry weight basis) for cattle, chicken, and swine excreta samples, respectively. After 30 days, samples averaged 4.16+/-0.69 and 4.11+/-0.69 microg/g tylosin-A in cattle and swine excreta, respectively. No residues of tylosin-A or its factors were apparent in the chicken excreta samples after 30 days of incubation. In each case, tylosin declined to less than 6.5% of the initial level after 30 days. Calculated first-order half-lives under the test conditions were 6.2 days, <7.6 days, and 7.6 days for cattle, chicken, and swine excreta, respectively. The results indicate that tylosin residues degrade rapidly in animal excreta. Therefore, tylosin residues should not persist in the environment.     

Assessment of hazardous air pollutants from disposal of munitions in a prototype fluidized bed incinerator.

As part of the control technology development for the disposal of waste munitions, an assessment of potential emissions of hazardous air pollutants from a prototype fluidized bed incinerator was conducted. Assessment program elements included identification of potentially toxic emissions through material input analysis and computer simulation modeling of the combustion cycle; development of emission limitations criteria for substances having no present air pollution emission standards; evaluation and development of analytical procedures; and design of a sampling system to condition an emission stream characterized by high temperature and humidity resulting from burning water slurries of explosive materials. Emphasis is placed on the potential emission of nickel and its compounds, particulate and vapor emissions of cyanides, nitrogen oxides, and TNT and RDX energetic residuals.     

印度非营利医疗保险计划的评价及启示

介绍了印度4种在非正式部门实施的非营利医疗保险计划，并分析和评价其制度安排、技术设计、组织管理及其所属的卫生服务提供体系等方面的特点，以得出对建立和完善我国农村合作医疗保险计划的启示。