Urgent transjugular retrograde obliteration for prophylaxis of rebleeding from gastric varices in patients with a spontaneous portosplenorenal shunt

BACKGROUND: Bleeding isolated gastric varices with a spontaneous portosplenorenal shunt are difficult to control. The urgent use of transjugular retrograde obliteration (TJO) to prevent early rebleeding and to improve early mortality has not yet been demonstrated. We report our experience with this technique in patients with isolated gastric varices after treatment of acute bleeding. METHODS: We reviewed our experience of 6 patients with isolated gastric varices with a spontaneous portosplenoral shunt treated with TJO after treatment of acute bleeding. We basically applied endoscopic glue embolization using cyanoacrylate monomer for treatment of acute bleeding. TJO was a method using an occlusive balloon catheter to control a spontaneous portosplenorenal shunt flow while injecting sclerosant retrograde into the gastric varices. RESULTS: Treatment of acute bleeding was achieved immediately by endoscopic glue embolization, endoscopic variceal ligation, and ligating the varices with sutures following anterior gastrotomy in 4, 1 and 1 patients, respectively, and then TJO was performed. Permanent hemostasis and variceal eradication was achieved in these 6, and they all survived. They were alive for 6-66 months without gastric variceal recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that urgent TJO is effective in the prophylaxis of early and late rebleeding from isolated gastric varices in patients with a spontaneous portosplenorenal shunt.     

Portal hypertension: a surgical hepatologist's view of current management

Current strategies for management of acute esophageal variceal bleeding and for long-term treatment after an episode of variceal bleeding are outlined. Acute variceal bleeding is best managed by means of endoscopic therapy (sclerotherapy, band ligation, or “superglue”), whereas the role of pharmacologic agents remains controversial. In cases of failure of endoscopic therapy, a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) procedure, an emergency shunt, or a transection operation should be performed. Patients who experience an acute variceal bleeding episode require long-term management to prevent recurrent bleeding. Endoscopic treatment is preferred using either sclerotherapy or banding. The principal alternative is long-term pharmacologic therapy with beta-adrenergic receptor blocking agents. Major surgical procedures should be reserved for failures of endoscopic or pharmacologic therapy. The distal splenorenal shunt or the new narrow-diameter polytetrafluoroethylene portacaval shunt is preferred. All patients who are first seen with acute variceal bleeding should be considered for a liver transplant, although few will ultimately become transplant candidates. Patients with end-stage liver disease who are not transplant candidates should be identified and major high-cost therapy discontinued. Prophylactic therapy prior to variceal bleeding should be considered in selected patients. At present, only pharmacologic therapy is justified. The major problem remains identification of those patients at high risk for a first episode of variceal bleeding.     

Over-the-scope clip (OTSC) represents an effective endoscopic treatment for acute GI bleeding after failure of conventional techniques

Background

Through-the-scope clips are commonly used for endoscopic hemostasis of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, but their efficacy can be suboptimal in patients with complex bleeding lesions. The over-the-scope clip (OTSC) could overcome the limitations of through-the-scope clips by allowing compression of larger amounts of tissue, allowing a more efficient hemostasis. We analyzed the use of OTSC in a consecutive case series of patients with acute GI bleeding unresponsive to conventional endoscopic treatment modalities.

Methods

In a retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data in tertiary referral centers, patients undergoing emergency endoscopy for severe acute nonvariceal GI bleeding were treated with the OTSC after failure of conventional techniques. All patients underwent repeat endoscopy 2–4 days after the procedure. Data analysis included primary hemostasis, complications, and 1-month follow-up clinical outcome.

Results

During a 10-month period, 30 patients entered the study consecutively. Bleeding lesions unresponsive to conventional endoscopic treatment (saline/adrenaline injection and through-the-scope clipping) were located in the upper and lower GI tract in 23 and 7 cases, respectively. Primary hemostasis was achieved in 29 of 30 cases (97 %). One patient with bleeding from duodenal bulb ulcer required emergent selective radiological embolization. Rebleeding occurred in two patients 12 and 24 h after the procedure; they were successfully treated with conventional saline/adrenaline endoscopic injection.

Conclusions

OTSC is an effective and safe therapeutic option for severe acute GI bleeding when conventional endoscopic treatment modalities fail.     

Current management of portal hypertension

Portal hypertension can lead to life-threatening hemorrhage, ascites, and encephalopathy. This paper reviews the pathophysiology and multidisciplinary management of portal hypertension and its complications, including the indications for and techniques of the various surgical shunts. Variceal bleeding is the most dreaded complication of portal hypertension. It may occur once the portal-systemic gradient increases above 12 mm Hg, occurs in 30% of patients with cirrhosis, and carries a 30-day mortality of 20%. Treatment of acute variceal bleeding includes resuscitation followed by upper endoscopy for sclerosis or band ligation of varices, which can control bleeding in up to 85% of patients. Medical therapies such as vasopressin and somatostatin can also be useful adjuncts. Shunt therapy, preferably the placement of a TIPS, is indicated for refractory acute variceal bleeding. Recurrent variceal bleeding is common and is associated with a high mortality. Therapies to prevent recurrent variceal bleeding include chronic endoscopic therapy, nonselective beta-blockade, operative or nonoperative (TIPS) shunts, devascularization operations, and liver transplantation. Recommendations and a treatment algorithm are provided, taking into account both the etiology and the manifestations of portal hypertension.     

Portal hypertension and ascites

Portal hypertension occurs secondary to increased resistance to portal blood flow. It is a principle consequence of liver cirrhosis and leads to severe life-threatening complications, such as variceal bleeding, ascites and hepatic encephalopathy. Acute variceal bleeding is a medical and surgical emergency requiring a multidisciplinary management approach. Prompt resuscitation along with pharmacotherapy agents (terlipressin or somatostatin analogues) followed by early endoscopic variceal banding is the cornerstone of effective treatment. Refractory bleeding despite endoscopic band ligation requires emergency trans-jugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPSS). Diuretic therapy with spironolactone and furosemide are the first line of management of ascites. If ascites becomes refractory, repeat large volume paracentesis (LVP) and TIPSS are potential treatment options. Liver transplantation remains the only curative option for all patients with portal hypertension, but a careful selection policy and assessment is mandatory when considering transplantation.     

When endoscopic therapy or pharmacotherapy fails to control variceal bleeding: what should be done?

BACKGROUND: Acute variceal bleeding is the major cause of death in patients with chronic liver disease. This justifies the search for a more effective therapy to achieve rapid and definitive hemostasis in every patient. At present, the recommended standard treatment for acute variceal bleeding consists of immediate drug treatment with terlipressin or octreotide together with early endoscopic band ligation or sclerotherapy. In the case of ectopic varices terlipressin and cyanoacrylate embolization (if varices can be reached by endoscope) are in use. FOCUS: The treatment is considered to have failed when bleeding continues or significant bleeding recurs within 48 h. This indicates the need for emergency transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) which has been regarded as rescue treatment of choice when standard treatment fails. Although randomized studies against supportive treatment are lacking, the high efficacy and relatively low mortality after TIPS implantation are convincing. It is reasonable that smaller shunts should be preferred (probably 8 mm in diameter) since most patients have an increased risk of liver failure. To increase the effect of the shunt with respect to acute hemostasis it should be combined with transjugular embolization of the varices. CONCLUSION: Only strict adherence to the definition of failure of standard treatment and a generous indication to the TIPS implantation before multiorgan failure occurs may decrease the high mortality of acute variceal bleeding.     

系-腔分流术治疗门静脉高压症术后再出血的临床研究

目的探讨系-腔C形、H形架桥术对门脉高压症再出血的临床疗效及肠系膜上静脉外科干解剖变异时的临床处理.方法总结2002年1月至2004年8月36例门脉高压症术后再出血病例资料,其中脾切除、断流术后再出血21例,近端脾肾分流术后再出血9例,远端脾肾分流术后再出血4例,近端脾肾分流术＋断流术后2例;再出血后行系-腔C形架桥术18例,系-腔H形架桥术12例,肠系膜上静脉外科干解剖变异改行肠系膜下静脉-下腔静脉分流术4例,改行冠腔分流术2例.通过术中测压、术后B超测定吻合口血流量以及胃镜、肝功能随访评价系-腔分流术临床疗效.结果术后门脉降压明显,随访6个月至3年,吻合口通畅,胃底静脉曲张减轻,无一例再出血,无严重并发症,无一例死亡.结论系-腔分流术能有效的治疗门脉高压症术后再出血,其中C形架桥术降压效果最明显;当肠系膜上静脉外科干解剖变异时,应及时选择其它分流方法.     

Interventional endoscopic treatment of upper gastrointestinal bleeding – when, how, and how often

Acute upper gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is still associated with high mortality. Reducing the rebleeding rate is the major challenge in therapeutic endoscopy. The following article describes the indications, techniques and limitations of endoscopic treatment of upper GI bleeding. Endoscopic techniques such as endoscopic sclerotherapy (EIS), endoscopic variceal ligation (EVL), cyanoacrylate obliteration, argon plasma coagulation (APC), and the application of hemoclip are described and compared concerning their efficacy. The pros and cons of "second-look" endoscopy are discussed.     

Endoscopic hemostasis of erosive-ulcerous gastroduodenal bleeding with fibrin glue at critically ill patients

Experience of endoscopic hemostasis of acute erosive-ulcerous gastroduodenal bleeding with fibrin glue at critically ill patients is described. This glue is adhesive substance based on high-concentrated solution of fibrinogen (concentration of protein not less 60 g/l). Application of adhesive permitted to stop the bleeding at 84 of 87 extremely seriously ill patients (mean point according to APACHE--II scale was 19.5+/-0.9). Prolonged endoscopic control with repeated application of adhesive permitted to avoid bleeding clinical recurrences, to stop repeatedly with endoscopy 4 of 6 recurrent bleedings, to avoid forced surgery at 80 of these patients. Adhesive accelerated significantly the healing of ulcers despite of hypoxic injury of mucosa. Endoscopic hemostasis permitted to avoid forced surgical aggression, to improve treatment results and to decrease lethality at critically ill patients.     

Endoscopic sclerotherapy

Various sclerotherapy techniques have proved successful in the management of acute variceal bleeding and in long-term control of patients after a variceal bleed. We prefer either an intravariceal or a combined intravariceal and paravariceal technique using ethanolamine oleate, but we advocate that individual units utilize the technique with which they have the most experience. The use of an unmodified flexible endoscope has been almost universally accepted. Once active variceal bleeding is diagnosed on emergency endoscopy, immediate emergency sclerotherapy should be performed. When this is not possible, bleeding should be controlled by balloon-tube tamponade with subsequent delayed emergency sclerotherapy after resuscitation. Patients with variceal bleeding that has stopped at the time of the diagnostic endoscopy can either be treated by immediate sclerotherapy or be observed initially and subsequently treated using the long-term management policy of the unit concerned. Over 90% of actively bleeding patients should be controlled using emergency sclerotherapy. Failures are defined as patients who have more than two acute variceal bleeds during a single hospital admission. Such patients should be identified early and treated either by simple staple-gun transection or by an emergency portosystemic shunt. Repeated injection sclerotherapy using a flexible endoscope and the technique with which the group concerned has the most experience is recommended as the primary form of treatment for the majority of patients after a proven esophageal variceal bleed. Repeat injection treatments should probably be performed at weekly intervals until the esophageal varices are eradicated, with follow-up at 6-month or yearly intervals thereafter. Recurrent varices should be treated similarly. Failures of sclerotherapy are defined as patients who have either recurrent bleeds or in whom varices are difficult to eradicate. They require either a portosystemic shunt or a devascularization and transection operation. All patients presenting with cirrhosis and variceal bleeding should be evaluated for liver transplantation; unfortunately, however, few variceal bleeders are candidates for transplantation. Prophylactic sclerotherapy in patients with esophageal varices that have not bled remains unjustified outside of controlled trials. Available trials have produced conflicting data.     

Portal hypertension and ascites

Portal hypertension is secondary to increased resistance to blood flow and increased blood flow through the portal system. The most common cause is liver cirrhosis. The most severe and life-threatening presentation of portal hypertension is acute variceal bleeding. Pharmacotherapy with vasoactive agents (terlipressin or somatostatin), endoscopic band ligation and radiological treatment with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPSS) are the most common treatment options for variceal bleeding. However, where surgical expertise exists, portosystemic shunts can be considered for refractory bleeding in patients without significant liver failure, especially when TIPSS is unavailable or contraindicated. Diuretic therapy with spironolactone and furosemide are the basis for the management of ascites. If ascites becomes refractory, repeat large volume paracentesis and TIPSS are potential treatment options. Liver transplantation offers the definitive treatment for portal hypertension secondary to cirrhosis as it cures the underlying liver disease.     

Portal hypertension and ascites

Portal hypertension is secondary to increased resistance to blood flow and increased blood flow through the portal system. The commonest cause is liver cirrhosis. The most severe and life-threatening presentation of portal hypertension is acute variceal bleeding. Pharmacotherapy with vasoactive agents (terlipressin or somatostatin), endoscopic band ligation and radiological treatment with transjugular intra-hepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPSS) are the commonest treatment options for variceal bleeding. However, where surgical expertise exists, portosystemic shunts can be considered for refractory bleeding in patients without significant liver failure, especially when TIPSS is unavailable or contraindicated. Diuretic therapy with spironolactone and furosemide are the basis for the management of ascites. If ascites becomes refractory, repeat large volume paracentesis and TIPSS are potential treatment options. Liver transplantation offers the definitive treatment for portal hypertension secondary to cirrhosis as it cures the underlying liver disease.     

Mesenterico left portal bypass for variceal bleeding owing to extrahepatic portal hypertension caused by portal vein thrombosis

Background/Purpose

Portosystemic shunt operations are indicated in patients with extrahepatic portal hypertension owing to portal vein thrombosis (EPH-PVT) suffering from recurrent variceal bleeding despite endoscopic sclerotherapy. Mesenterico left portal bypass procedure (MLPB) is an alternative procedure to the portosystemic shunt operations in patients with EPH-PVT. MLPB operation reestablishes hepatopetal portal blood flow. We herein present our experience with MLPB in children with EPH-PVT.

Methods

Six patients were treated for EPH-PVT with recurrent bleeding despite endoscopic sclerotherapy (2 boys and 4 girls) in our unit. All patients were evaluated preoperatively with complete blood count, portal duplex system Doppler ultrasonography, magnetic resonance angiography, and upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy. MLPB operation was performed as described by de Ville de Goyet. During the postoperative period, patients were evaluated with complete blood count, portal duplex system Doppler ultrasonography, upper GI endoscopy, and magnetic resonance angiography.

Results

Six patients were assessed to be candidates for MLPB procedure and were operated to perform the MLPB procedure. Left portal veins were found to be patent during the operation in 4 patients, and the MLPB procedure was performed. Internal jugular vein was used in 3 patients and enlarged inferior mesenteric vein in 1 patient. Left portal veins of the remaining 2 patients were found to be obliterated; therefore, mesocaval shunt was performed. The postoperative course of the patients was uneventful except for 1 patient. During the following period, the leukocyte and the platelet counts were significantly increased in 3 of the 4 patients after the MLPB procedure. Upper GI bleeding occurred in the early postoperative period in 1 patient with MLPB procedure because of prepyloric ulcer that was successfully treated by endoscopic sclerotherapy. Internal jugular vein graft thrombosis was detected on the 10th postoperative day. This patient underwent a second laparotomy, the distal half of the graft was found to be sclerosed and narrowed that the graft was revised with a synthetic allograft.

Conclusions

Based on a review of the literature, the MLPB functions well in patients with portal hypertension caused by portal vein thrombosis and appears to have a physiologic advance over shunts that decompress but do not return blood directly to the liver. Because intra-abdominal veins appear to function well as a conduit in this operation, it may be favored by eliminating additional incision and increased risk in such patients.     

提高我国肝硬化食管胃底静脉曲张出血治疗效果应重视的几个问题

肝硬化食管胃底静脉曲张出血应采用个体化、规范化的综合治疗。临床疑为曲张静脉出血,应首选血管活性药物、抗生素和内镜联合治疗。三腔二囊管压迫和药物联合治疗可用于无条件开展内镜治疗的病例。药物和内镜难以控制的出血,可选用TIPS。若非手术治疗失败或无条件开展TIPS等技术,手术治疗具有不可替代的作用,包括断流、分流或断流加分流术,应根据不同个体的不同病情加以应用,以减少并发症、降低手术死亡率。合并慢性病毒性肝炎者,应酌情给与抗病毒治疗。     

Esophageal transection fails to salvage high-risk cirrhotic patients with variceal bleeding

A small proportion of portal hypertensive patients with acute variceal bleeding do not respond to medical management and require emergency control of hemorrhage, yet are not candidates for shunt surgery. Transgastric esophageal transection and stapling of the esophagus has been suggested as a rapid, simple means to halt variceal bleeding in such high-risk patients. This should theoretically allow a hemorrhage-free interval for resuscitation and improvement in metabolic and cardiopulmonary status before definitive shunt surgery. We tested this hypothesis in 10 high-risk patients with variceal bleeding who underwent transection of the esophagus, sometimes with splenectomy and coronary vein ligation, over a 4 year period. In our experience, esophageal transection in high-risk patients with variceal bleeding controlled acute variceal hemorrhage, was neither rapid nor free of technical misadventures, was associated with a high rate of serious postoperative complications resulting in death in nearly all patients, and consistently failed to result in sufficient metabolic improvement to permit shunt surgery.     

Interventional radiological treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding

Summary   Background: Gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is divided into upper and lower GI bleeding. The most common reasons for upper GI bleeding are gastric and duodenal ulcers. Lower GI bleeding is located in the intestine below the ligament of Treitz. In this review article the possibilities for interventional radiological treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding will be discussed. Methods: Interventional treatment in form of embolization of arterial branches of the celiac trunc is indicated if endoscopic approaches fail to stop the bleeding. Localization and treatment of lower GI bleeding is more difficult and technically more demanding. Embolization of mesenteric branches may be effective to stop bleeding but carries the risk of inducing bowl ischemia. Sometimes surgical exploration can be necessary after embolization. However, especially in severe bleeding, embolization may help to stabilize the patient before major surgery. If the bleeding source can not be identified, intraarterial infusion of vasoactive drugs, like vasopressin, may be effective. Results: In upper GI bleeding, hemostasis can be achieved by transarterial embolization in up to 91 %. In lower GI bleeding the success rate is less well defined, since there are no larger series available in the current literature. In all embolization procedures, the risk of ischemic bowl damage has to be considered. This complication occurs more often in embolization after in lower GI bleeding. Conclusions: Transarterial embolization offers an efficient treatment of upper and lower GI bleeding. It should be used for upper GI bleeding when endoscopic hemostasis is not so successful. In lower GI bleeding transarterial embolization often has the character of a temporizing procedure before surgery.      

Evidence‐based Review of Gastrointestinal Bleeding in the Chronic Kidney Disease Patient

Patients with end‐stage renal disease are more likely to suffer from gastrointestinal (GI) problems, including bleeding from upper and lower sources. Peptic ulcer disease is the most common cause of upper GI bleeding, and although there is some debate in the literature regarding whether the frequency of ulcer disease is higher in patients with kidney disease, it is well established that outcomes are worse in patients with compromised renal function. Angioectasias can be found throughout the GI tract and are another common cause of bleeding; management can be divided into localized endoscopic therapy and systemic hormonal treatment, or surgery for refractory cases. The most frequent causes of lower GI bleeding in this population, in addition to angioectasias, are diverticulosis, hemorrhoids, and ischemic colitis.     

Multivisceral transplantation for diffuse portomesenteric thrombosis in a patient with life-threatening esophagogastroduodenal bleeding

Portal vein thrombosis is the most common cause of portal hypertension in noncirrhotic patients. Variceal bleeding is difficult to treat in these patients, especially those with prehepatic diffuse portal mesenteric thrombosis. In a patient with refractory esophagogastroduodenal variceal bleeding as a result of diffuse portomesenteric thrombosis and portal hypertension, life-threatening bleeding was unresponsive to endoscopic therapy and other surgical procedures. A multivisceral transplant was performed. It was curative and also lifesaving. There is only one report in the literature mentioning multivisceral transplantation for a patient with life-threatening esophagogastroduodenal bleeding; however that patient had protein C deficiency. Our patient had normal liver and intestinal function tests and no signs of hypercoagulable disease. We believe that multivisceral transplantation should be considered as a treatment option for patients with diffuse mesenteric thrombosis, even in the absence of liver and intestinal failure, when other treatment options for variceal bleeding have failed, particularly in a younger patient with a relatively good nutritional status before transplantation.     

Akute gastrointestinale Blutungen

Acute gastrointestinal (GI) haemorrhage is still one of the most frequent medical emergencies. The epidemiology of the disease has changed, and although diagnosis and treatment have greatly improved the mortality rate is still approx. 10%. Formerly most of the patients were young persons presenting with acute lesions resulting from peptic ulcers, but the majority are now older with other, pre-existing diseases and risk factors, and their bleeding is associated with long-term intake of aspirin, NSAID and anticoagulation treatment. Thanks to the progress made in endoscopy and interventional radiology, the bleeding site can almost always be localised and the bleeding (at least temporarily) stopped without recourse to an operation. Only patients with severe bleeding that cannot be managed by these means, and those with recurrent bleeding and/or specific risk factors are candidates for surgery. This also has ramifications for first aid and emergency medicine. Following resuscitation and airway control the prognosis of patients with acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage depends mainly on how fast they can be transferred to a medical centre in which expertise in emergency endoscopic and interventional management of GI bleeding is available round the clock.     

Cytomegalovirus duodenitis associated with life-threatening duodenal hemorrhage in an immunocompetent patient: A case report

IntroductionCytomegalovirus (CMV) is known to be opportunistic in immunocompromised patients. However, there have been emerging cases of severe CMV infections found in immunocompetent patients. Gastrointestinal (GI) CMV disease is the most common manifestation affecting immunocompetent patients, with duodenal involvement being exceedingly rare. Presented is a case of an immunocompetent patient with life-threatening bleeding caused by CMV duodenitis, requiring surgical intervention.Presentation of caseA 60-year-old male with history of disseminated Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) bacteremia and aortic valve infective endocarditis, presented with life-threatening upper GI hemorrhage. Endoscopy revealed ulcerations, with associated generalized mucosal bleeding in the duodenum. After repeated endoscopic therapies and failed interventional-radiology arterial embolization, the patient required a duodenectomy and associated total pancreatectomy, to control the duodenal hemorrhage. Pathologic review of the surgical specimen demonstrated CMV duodenitis. Systemic ganciclovir was utilized postoperatively.DiscussionGI CMV infections should be on the differential diagnosis of immunocompetent patients presenting with uncontrollable GI bleeding, especially in critically ill patients due to transiently suppressed immunity. Endoscopic and histopathological examinations are often required for diagnosis. Ganciclovir is first-line treatment. Surgical intervention may be considered if there is recurrent bleeding and CMV duodenitis is suspected because of high potential for bleeding-associated mortality.ConclusionPresented is a rare case of life-threatening GI hemorrhage caused by CMV duodenitis in an immunocompetent patient. The patient failed endoscopic and interventional-radiology treatment options, and ultimately stabilized after surgical intervention.