Attitudes and accidents aboard an aircraft carrier.

A 22-item questionnaire, developed to measure various behavioral attitudes reportedly associated with accidents, was given to 879 enlisted air wing support personnel and 156 aviators on an aircraft carrier at the start of deployment. A factor analysis of these 22 items indicated six underlying concepts for which scales were created. Personnel injuries for the air wing and aircraft accidents for the aviators were recorded for the duration of the cruise, and correlations of these criteria with the 22 items and six scales were computed. Three items significantly predicted accidents in both populations and all three appeared in the same factor. The Adventurous scale developed from this factor was significantly (p less than or equal to 0.01) correlated with accidents in both groups. This scale appears to measure attitudes toward risk taking, which was the only concept found useful for the prediction of future accidents in this study.     

Community psychological effects following a non-fatal aircraft accident

Following a non-fatal military aircraft accident, two of the authors interviewed the crewmen involved in the accident, their spouses, fellow squadron members and their spouses, and individuals from the fire crew and control tower on duty during the accident. A total of 37 respondents completed questionnaires which reported the presence of intrusive, avoidant, depressive/anxious, and post-traumatic stress symptoms. Spouses reported more symptoms after the accident than their flying husbands. Intrusive symptoms were most common. Symptoms were correlated with various perceptions and experiences occurring prior to and following the accident. Several kinds of symptoms and experiences were significantly correlated with a perception of morale decline. This study suggests that even non-fatal aircraft accidents may have important psychological effects on those involved and on the surrounding community. Implications of these findings and recommendations for helping communities process traumatic events are discussed.     

Human factors analysis and classification system applied to civil aircraft accidents in India

INTRODUCTION: The Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) has gained wide acceptance as a tool to classify human factors in aircraft accidents and incidents. This study on application of HFACS to civil aircraft accident reports at Directorate General Civil of Aviation (DGCA), India, was conducted to ascertain the practicability of applying HFACS to existing investigation reports and to analyze the trends of human factor causes of civil aircraft accidents. METHOD: Accident investigation reports held at DGCA, New Delhi, for the period 1990--99 were scrutinized. In all, 83 accidents occurred during this period, of which 48 accident reports were evaluated in this study. RESULTS: One or more human factors contributed to 37 of the 48 (77.1%) accidents. The commonest unsafe act was 'skill based errors' followed by 'decision errors.' Violations of laid down rules were contributory in 16 cases (33.3%). 'Preconditions for unsafe acts' were seen in 23 of the 48 cases (47.9%). A fairly large number (52.1%) had 'organizational influences' contributing to the accident. DISCUSSION: These results are in consonance with larger studies of accidents in the U.S. Navy and general aviation. Such a high percentage of 'organizational influences' has not been reported in other studies. This is a healthy sign for Indian civil aviation, provided effective remedial action for the same is undertaken.     

Analysis of 2004 German general aviation aircraft accidents according to the HFACS model

INTRODUCTION: The number of aircraft accidents remains on a constant level since the late 1990s. Routine analysis in detail of the causative factors is not carried out in Germany. The analysis of flight mishaps has been demonstrated to be an important basis for flight safety. The Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) model is best suitable for aircraft accident analysis. The aim of this study was to classify aircraft accidents in the General Aviation (GA) of Germany according to the HFACS model and to figure out the underlying causes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The analysis was performed with the HFACS model and on the basis of the regularly published reports of the German state department for aircraft accident analysis (BFU) including accidents (but not incidents) of GA aircraft flown by German pilots in Germany and in other countries. The underlying reasons were classified as follows: pilot errors, organizational factors, ergonomic factors, aeromedical problems, and crew resource management. Additionally, the phase of the flight was classified. RESULTS: Two hundred thirty-nine GA aircraft accidents were registered in 2004 in Germany. Eighty-seven (36%) were reported in the class up to 2 tons, six (3%) in the class of 2.0 to 5.7 tons, 28 (12%) for Touring Motor Gliders (TMG), and 118 (49%) for gliders. Of these accidents, 54 (35 crewmembers and 19 passengers) aircraft occupants survived slightly injured, 35 (23 crewmembers and 12 passengers) were seriously injured, and 34 (21 crewmembers and 13 passengers) were killed. Data for uninjured aircraft occupants were not available. Most accidents happened on summer weekends during approach and landing (53%) due to pilot errors (84%). CONCLUSIONS: Our data mainly seem to be in concordance with previously published data on GA. An improvement of flight safety can be achieved only with a detailed analysis of the accident data. Therefore, more data on aircraft accidents in Germany are needed, for example, by adapting the German aircraft accident report form. Pilots should train in approaches and landings to conduct a higher level of proficiency.     

Analysis of changes in the pilot population and general aviation accidents.

General Aviation pilots have been involved in a steadily decreasing number of accidents over the past 20 years. Changes in the age distribution, certification, and flying habits of these pilots make direct comparison of accident statistics inaccurate. This study reviews changes in the pilot population over the past 20 years to analyze their impact on accident statistics. Pilot age and certificate distributions from 1968 to 1987 were assembled from annual Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) surveys. Information about pilots involved in accidents was collected from annual National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reports. Trends in pilot age distribution, certification, aircraft use, flight planning, and weather were reviewed. The accident experience from the first 5 years of the study period was used to construct an adjusted plot of expected aircraft accidents. From 1968-87, the mean pilot age increased from 35 to 40 years and the number of pilots over the age of 60 increased five-fold. The number of pilots with Air Transport Pilot (ATP) certification tripled and instrument certification increased 80%. Accidents where an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight plan was filed increased from 3.6% to 6.6% without a corresponding increase in the number of accidents in weather at or below instrument meteorologic conditions (IMC). The accident experience from 1968 to 1973 predicted 116,000 accidents from 1968 to 1987. The actual number of accidents was 40% less than predicted. The average pilot age has increased both due to more pilots over the age of 50 and less young student pilots.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A bloodborne pathogen program in civilian aircraft accident investigation

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) amended 29 CFR Part 1910 in 1991 to include regulations addressing occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens (BBP). The rule affects all employees that have the potential for occupational exposure to these pathogens. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) are the primary organizations involved in aircraft accident investigation in the United States. No other organizations in this country have a similar scope or mandate of responsibility. An accident scene presents significant challenges in terms of implementing a program which was primarily envisioned to affect personnel in "traditional" healthcare delivery facilities; the OSHA requirements now had to be met in the chaotic, inhospitable, and logistically difficult environment of an aircraft accident site. Unanticipated issues such as heat-related conditions, performance of physically demanding work in cumbersome gear, biohazard trash disposal from remote sites, and a host of other problems had to be dealt with. The FAA, in close cooperation with other Federal agencies, developed a training and administrative program to meet the requirements of the OSHA BBP rule as it relates to the unique environment of an aircraft accident site. The program has been implemented and successfully tested under actual field conditions at several major aviation accidents that have occurred recently. This article provides observations on the FAA's program and lessons learned from its implementation.     

Alcohol associated with fatal light aircraft accidents, United Kingdom-1964-1973.

A total of 86 fatal light aircraft accidents in the United Kingdom from January 1964 to December 1973 are reviewed, in which tissue alcohol determinations were undertaken on 102 pilots. Alcohol was detected in 34 cases varying from small amounts of 313 mg/100 ml. The difficulties of interpretation of post mortem tissue alcohol levels are discussed with particular reference to those cases with measured alcohols in excess of 20 mg/100 ml a level taken as possibly significant in context of accident causation. There was 12 pilots, involved in 10 of the 86 fatal accidents, considered as having ingested alcohol before flying, giving an incidence of 11.6% fatal light aircraft accidents with an alcohol involvement. Half of the pilot crashed within 18 min of takeoff, and half had less than 100 h flying experience. It is noted that five of the accidents occurred in 1973. Education of pilots to the hazards of alcohol and flying is the ultimate solution.     

Survey of spatial disorientation in military pilots and navigators

BACKGROUND: The direction of future spatial disorientation (SD) research and training is shaped primarily by the outcome of formal investigation of aircraft accidents and incidents. However, another source of vital information is aircrews' experience of SD that does not result in reported incidents. METHODS: A short postal SD survey was distributed to 5 Naval Air Squadrons, 22 Joint Helicopter Command Units, and 7 Royal Air Force stations in the United Kingdom. There were 752 questionnaires, including responses from 562 pilots and 149 navigators, that were returned. RESULTS: Analysis was conducted primarily on the pilot data. The most frequently experienced SD episodes were "the leans" (by 92% of respondents), loss of horizon due to atmospheric conditions (82%), misleading altitude cues (79%), sloping horizon (75%), and SD arising from distraction (66%). In general, the frequency of SD episodes and ratings of severity of the worst ever SD episode were positively related to flying experience (p < 0.05). Overall, pilots who had received in-flight SD training reported more episodes of SD than those who had not participated in this training (p < 0.05). Differences in types of SD experienced were found between aircraft categories, e.g., more episodes of SD during night vision goggle use were reported by rotary-wing pilots compared with fast-jet aviators (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This preliminary survey has shown that SD is still a significant hazard of military flying. Overall, this study shows that the postal questionnaire is a useful tool for assessing how SD training and experience may benefit the recognition of situations that may cause SD. However, it is difficult to access those situations where aircrew were truly disorientated.     

Ultralight aviation accident factors and latent failures: a 66-case study

INTRODUCTION: Little research has been done on ultralight aviation accidents. A better understanding of accident factors allows for better development of preventive measures. This study analyzes ultralight accidents with respect to significant factors related to active and latent failures, as referred to in Reason's Swiss cheese model of human error. METHODS: There were 66 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) ultralight accident reports that were examined from 1985-2004. Contextual information about active and latent failures was identified, compiled, and cross-referenced with pilot, aircraft, and accident information for evidence of significant relationships. RESULTS: Pilots with less than 40 make/model-specific flying hours were significantly more likely to crash fatally (chi2 = 9.07; p < 0.005; df=1) than other pilots and/or because of losing control (chi2 = 7.24; p < 0.05; df=1) than other accident causes. In contrast, pilots with 40 or more make/model-specific flying hours were significantly more likely to crash as a result of engine failure (chi2 = 9.33; p < 0.005; df = 1). Loss of control as an active failure was usually associated with such latent failures as strong winds and insufficient mission planning, while the engine failure accidents involved inadequate maintenance. CONCLUSION: In order to reduce accident prevalence, ultralight self-regulation organizations should focus on training in mission planning, aircraft familiarity, and proper maintenance procedures. Further research should concentrate on explaining the prevalence of the active and latent failures shown here and determining the effects of the FAA's new light sport aircraft category.     

Hypnosis in the investigation of aviation accidents

The efficacy of hypnotic inquiry techniques with ten witnesses to six recent Naval aircraft accidents was evaluated in this study. Eight witnesses had been directly involved in an accident, five as mishap pilots. Interviews were conducted under conservative standards of practice after regular interviews had been completed and all depositions taken. Naval officers who accompanied the witness(es) to the interviews and concomitantly assisted the accident investigation boards served as the evaluators. Important information concerning the accidents was gained in the majority of the interviews. Secondary survival information of importance was obtained in a number of cases as well. None of the witnesses experienced psychological or career problems as a result of the interviews, and the hypnosis seemed highly therapeutic in some cases. Results suggest that hypnotic interview techniques with witnesses may be of great value in the investigations of certain aircraft accidents.     

Gyroplane accidents 1985-2005: epidemiological analysis and pilot factors in 223 events

INTRODUCTION: Gyroplanes (autogyros) are regarded as a relatively safe and stable type of general-aviation aircraft. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration categorizes them as sport pilot/light sport aircraft, and reports of gyroplane accidents are included in a publicly available database. We hypothesized that issues related to pilot experience and aircraft maintenance would affect the severity of accidents as indicated by aircraft damage and fatalities. METHODS: A search of the National Transportation Safety Board database for the period 1985-2005 yielded 223 reports of gyroplane accidents. Information from those reports was compiled and cross-referenced with pilot performance breakdowns and contextual information. The data was then analyzed using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System. RESULTS: There was a strong effect of pilot experience on crash outcomes; compared to more experienced pilots, crashes involving pilots with less than 40 flight hours in the same make/model gyroplane were five times more likely to involve loss of control, twice as likely to destroy the aircraft, and four times more likely to involve fatalities. On the other hand, crashes involving pilots with more than 40 make/model hours were more likely to be related to perception-based performance breakdown. Maintenance issues were not found to play a significant role in this sample of crashes. CONCLUSION: The results support the hypothesis that pilot experience is a significant predictor of accident fatality in gyroplanes. Training that is adapted to the experience level of pilots as implemented in new FAA regulations for sport pilot and light sport aircraft (2004) may help to reduce the frequency and seriousness of gyroplane accidents.     

Ultralight aircraft safety and regulation

Ultralight aircraft evolved from adding power to hang gliders. Ultralight aviation is now the fastest growing sport in America. The safety of these aircraft is of concern but information regarding accidents and fatalities has been meager. To date, the only major source of statistics has been the Experimental Aircraft Association, which tabulated 101 accidents with 20 fatalities over a 3.5-year period. Until October 1982, there were no FAA regulations governing these aircraft. This report reviews the evolution of ultralight aircraft regulation and the available accident information.     

Disaster victim identification of military aircrew, 1945-2002

BACKGROUND: Aviation accident fatalities are characterized by substantial tissue disruption and fragmentation, limiting the usefulness of traditional identification methods. This study examines the success of disaster victim identification (DVI) in military aviation accident fatalities in the Australian Defense Force (ADF). METHODS: Accident reports and autopsy records of aircrew fatalities during the period 1945-2002 were examined to identify difficulties experienced during the DVI process or injuries that would prevent identification of remains using non-DNA methods. RESULTS: The ADF had 301 aircraft fatalities sustained in 144 accidents during the period 1945-2002. The autopsy reports for 117 fatalities were reviewed (covering 73.7% of aircrew fatalities from 1960-2002). Of the 117 victims, 38 (32.4%) sustained injuries which were severe enough to prevent identification by traditional (non-DNA) comparative scientific DVI techniques of fingerprint and dental analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Many of the ADF fatalities who could not be positively identified in the past could be identified today through the use of DNA techniques. Successful DNA identification, however, depends on having a reference DNA profile. This paper recommends the establishment of a DNA repository to store reference blood samples to facilitate the identification of ADF aircrew remains without causing additional distress to family members.     

A review of Army Air Corps helicopter accidents, 1971-1982

A comprehensive review of helicopter accident data from ACC sources is presented for the period 1971-1982. Accident and fatality rates have declined from the high values quoted in earlier studies in the 1960's and are now similar to those of fixed wing aircraft equipped with ejection seats. This improvement is related to the replacement of older reciprocating engined helicopters by turbine powered units and parallel progress in helicopter design, aircraft servicing, and pilot training. AAC accident rates now compare extremely favourably with information from civilian sources, though fatality rates are similar. Pilot error remains the main cause of accidents (75%). Particular attention is paid to subsidiary aetiologies such as tail rotor strikes, disorientation, and ground accidents. Helicopter accidents involving fatalities on Operation Corporate are mentioned briefly. Methods whereby occupant protection and aircraft crashworthiness can be improved are covered and it is concluded that assisted escape, although an ideal solution, is by no means an urgent requirement for helicopters, in view of the dramatic reduction in accident and fatality rates.     

Ground crew injuries and fatalities in U.S. commercial aviation, 1983-2004

INTRODUCTION: Ground crew services are an essential part of airport operations. Injury hazards to ground crewmembers who are in close proximity to aircraft have not been well studied. The objective of this paper was to examine airport ground crew injuries and fatalities involving aircraft of commuter air carriers and major airlines. METHODS: Investigation reports for all ground crew injuries involving commuter and major airline aircraft that occurred at United States airports between 1983 and 2004 were obtained from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and analyzed to describe the immediate cause and pattern of injury occurrence. RESULTS: During the 22-yr study period, the NTSB recorded a total of 80 ground crew accidents involving landing, taxiing, or standing commercial airline aircraft, yielding an overall rate of 0.47 ground crew related accidents per 1 million aircraft departures. These accidents resulted in injuries to 98 ground crewmembers, including 21 fatalities. Two-thirds of the accidents took place as the aircraft was departing. Vehicular collisions with an aircraft made up 43% of accidents, 34% were caused by moving aircraft equipment such as propellers or nose gear, and 11% resulted from jet blasts or fires. CONCLUSIONS: intervention programs for airport ground personnel should emphasize the safe operation of the aircraft equipment and ground vehicles. Some of the injuries to ground crewmembers might be avoided through improved design of commonly used equipment.     

The value of experienced medical personnel during the investigation of general aviation accidents

A multidisciplinary approach to accident investigation is routine in commercial aircraft accidents. A medical team is usually assigned to assist with the investigation. As far as general aviation accidents are concerned, in a majority of cases, these resources are not available to the investigator-in-charge. We describe a general aviation accident to illustrate the scope of medical and human factors information that can be determined by professionals who assist the authorities with the investigation. Following the example, we suggest a method of identifying available expertise. Voluntary contributions from trained specialists need to be utilized to assist general aviation accident investigators and help promote aviation safety.     

Sleepiness,driving, and motor vehicle accidents: A questionnaire-based survey

In Switzerland, the prevalence of an excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) in drivers undergoing a driving capacity assessment is currently not known. In this study, private and professional drivers were evaluated by means of a paper-based questionnaire, including Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Berlin Questionnaire, and additional questions to sleepiness-related accidents, near-miss accidents, health issues, and demographic data.Of the 435 distributed questionnaires, 128 completed were returned. The response rate was 29%. The mean age of the investigated drivers was 42.5 years (20–85 years). According to the Epworth Sleepiness Scale, 9% of the participants are likely to suffer from excessive daytime sleepiness. An equal percentage has a high risk for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome based on the Berlin Questionnaire. 16% admitted an involuntary nodding off while driving a motor vehicle. This subset of the participants scored statistically significant higher on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (p = 0.036). 8% of the participants already suffered an accident because of being sleepy while driving. An equal number experienced a sleepiness-related near-miss accident on the road. The study shows that a medical workup of excessive daytime sleepiness is highly recommended in each driver undergoing a driving capacity assessment. Routine application of easily available and time-saving assessment tools such as the Epworth Sleepiness Scale questionnaire could prevent accidents in a simple way. The applicability of the Berlin Questionnaire to screen suspected fatal sleepiness-related motor vehicle accidents is discussed.     

Frequency of musculoskeletal symptoms in diagnostic medical sonographers. Results of a pilot survey

INTRODUCTION: We report the results of a pilot survey in diagnostic medical sonographers. Aim of the study was to evaluate the frequency of musculoskeletal disorders in sonologists and the relationship of these symptoms to ergonomic factors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 340 sonographers (258 male, 82 female doctors; mean age 41.5 +/- 7.2 years) were given a questionnaire to fill out. The questionnaire asked questions about the sonologist's age, gender, technique of ultrasound procedure, physical activity, and work-related musculoskeletal complaints. Two symptom lists regarded carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) symptoms (8 items) and other work-related musculoskeletal symptoms (13 items). The categorized response variables "have now" or "in the past" were provided. The symptoms experienced were categorized into three levels as no symptoms, few symptoms (1-4 symptoms), and many symptoms (> 5 symptoms). RESULTS: One third of the respondents reported having at least one or more work-related symptoms in the upper extremities. The most frequent symptoms were tingling (17.6%), numbness or finger pain (13.5%). Carpal tunnel syndrome had been diagnosed in 5 cases (1.5%). More than 60% of all respondents have experienced one or more musculoskeletal symptoms in the cervical or lumbar spine. The commonest symptom was neck and low back pain (67%). The pain was generally intermittent and occurred at the end of the workday. Motion impairment in the neck and/or back was present in 23.5% of cases. Twenty-five percent of respondents had received treatments for their symptoms and 10% reported having stopped work because of their symptoms. Data analysis showed that muscular efforts such as gripping the transducer, applying sustained pressure, and scanning with a correlated flexed or hyperextended wrist were significantly correlated with increasing severity of symptoms in the hand, wrist, and forearm area. On the other hand, low back pain appeared to be negatively correlated with correct position of the body. CONCLUSIONS: Several physical risk factors (e.g., repetitive work and force exertion, twisting of the body and poorly-adjustable chairs) have been identified for work-related upper extremity and spine disorders. Ergonomic redesign of the workstation configuration as well as allowing sufficient recovery time to body and arm muscles appear to be the main goals to achieve prevention of musculoskeletal disorders in sonographers.     

Survey on eye comfort in aircraft: I. Flight attendants.

Extensive research in aviation medicine has been devoted to various aspects of vision, but there has been little attention to the eye problems of flight attendants. Flight attendants, especially contact lens wearers, have complained about eye discomfort in aircraft. The purpose of this study was to evaluate some of the conditions in aircraft that might influence their eye comfort. A questionnaire on eye comfort was developed in conjunction with the Air Safety Department of the Association of Flight Attendants and distributed through its Flightlog magazine. Of the 774 respondents, 95% reported some eye discomfort in aircraft. It is significant that both those who did and who did wear contact lenses reported similar eye problems. The most common eye problems reported were conjunctival redness and dried eyes. Smoking was indicated by the respondents to be the most noticeable factor causing eye symptoms. Aircraft cabin conditions are discussed, including relative humidity, atmospheric oxygen, and ozone concentration. Since air passengers are exposed to the same aircraft conditions as the attendants, they probably would manifest similar eye problems.