Selenium content of human milk,cow's milk and cow's milk infant formulas

The selenium content of human milk, cow's milk and cow's milk infant formula were estimated by instrumental neutron activation analysis. The highest values were found in 3 samples of human colostrum (524–865×10^-9 g/g dry weight). There was a significant decrease with increasing time post partum. Mature human milk exhibited a selenium content of 230±79×10^-9 g/g dry weight.The selenium content of 45 samples of cow's milk from the north-western area of Germany was 200±39×10^-9 g/g dry weight. While there was no significant difference between the values of mature human milk and of cow's milk, cow's milk infant formula exhibited significantly (P<0.01) lower values than human milk. The average selenium content of 107 samples of 10 different commercially available fluid and powdered cow's milk infant formulas (range: 18–171×10^-9 g/g dry weight) amounted to about only one third of that in mature human milk.With support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft     

Evaluation of full-term infants fed an evaporated milk formula

The objective of this prospective, cohort study was to compare the nutritional status of full-term infants who were fed human milk (BF, n = 29). formula (FF, n = 30) or evaporated milk formulae (EM, n = 30) for at least 3 months. Infants were seen at enrollment, 3 and 6 months, at which times a blood sample, diet record and anthropometric data were collected. Infants in the EM group received solids earlier (12 ± 5 weeks) than did FF infants (15 ± 4 weeks), and both were earlier than BF infants (19 ± 4 weeks). Only 26% of the EM fed group received iron supplements as ferrous sulphate drops. Seven BF, 12 FF and 20 EM had abnormal ferritin values (<10ngml^-1) at 6 months. Copper intake was lower in the EM infants at 3 and 6 months. However, plasma copper and erythrocyte copper zinc superoxide dismutase (ZnCuSOD) levels did not differ between groups. Selenium intake was lower in the EM group (5 ± 1 and 10 ± 5 μg d^-1; 3 and 6 months) than in the FF infants (13 ± 4 and 19 ± 7 μgd^-1; 3 and 6 months). Erythrocyte SeGHSPx levels in EM infants were lower at 6 months (EM, 33.2 ± 3.4; FF, 35.2 ± 3.9; BF, 36.1 ± S.SmUmgHb^-1). Thiamin intake (0.99 ± 0.08 and 1.24 ± 0.32; 3 and 6 months, mg 1000 kcal^-1) was higher in the FF group than in EM infants (0.38 ± 0.39 and 0.66 ± 0.38; 3 and 6 months). There were more (13%) abnormal thiamin assays in the EM group at 6 months than in the BF and FF infants (0%). In conclusion, infants fed evaporated milk formula receive adequate copper but may not receive enough thiamin or selenium. Unless supplemented from birth with medicinal iron, intakes of iron will be inadequate.     

Cow's milk versus formula in older infants: consequences for human nutrition

Human milk is the preferred feeding for all infants, including premature and sick newborns, with rare exceptions. However, modern technology has produced alternative, "humanized formulae", which closely mimic the composition of human milk. The ingestion of human milk, "humanized formulae" or whole cow's milk has consequences for human nutrition. Gastroesophageal reflux, iron deficiency, calcium and sodium excesses or deficiencies may be influenced by the type and amount of milk fed to the infant. Likewise, neurological development and the likelihood of developing diabetes or cancer may also be influenced by early dietary practices. Until new information is available, we should continue to pattern formulae for older infants after breast milk, but with sufficient protein, calories, lipid and minerals to support optimal growth.     

Z-score of weight for age of infants with atopic dermatitis and cow's milk allergy fed with a rice-hydrolysate formula during the first two years of life

Background: Recently, rice-based formulas have been widely used in hypoallergenic diets, but data on nutritional values are scarce. Aim: To evaluate the growth of infants fed with a rice-based hydrolysate formula, compared to those infants fed with a soy formula or an extensively hydrolysed casein formula, in the first 2 y of life. Methods: A total of 88 infants were enrolled between March 2002 and March 2004. Fifty-eight infants with atopic dermatitis (AD) and cow's milk allergy (CMA), confirmed by open challenge, were enrolled as study group: 15 were fed with a rice-based hydrolysate formula (RHF), 17 with a soy-based formula (SF) and 26 with an extensively hydrolysed casein formula (eHCF). Thirty infants with AD without cow's milk allergy were recruited as a control group (CG) and fed with a free diet. Weight was recorded on enrolment and at 3-monthly intervals in the first year of life, and at 6-monthly intervals in the second year. Infants were weighed naked, before feeding, by means of an electronic integrating scale. The z-scores of weight for age were calculated. Statistics: One-way analysis of variance and Student's t -test were used for statistical comparison. Significance was set at p <0.05. Results: No significant differences between the RHF, SF and eHCF groups were observed for the z-score of weight for age during the first 2 y of life, but a significantly lower difference was seen in the RHF group compared to the control group in the intervals 9 mo–1 y ( p =0.025) and 1–1.5 y ( p =0.020) of age. In contrast, the SF and eHCF groups were comparable to the control group, but the eHCF group was significantly lower ( p =0) in the first trimester of life.
Conclusion: Even if our findings show no significant difference between RHF and control, low weight observed in infants fed with RHF raises doubts about the nutritional adequacy of rice-hydrolysate formulas.     

Indices of protein metabolism in term infants fed human milk, whey-predominant formula, or cow's milk formula

Relationships between intakes of amino acids and total nitrogen, and blood indices of protein utilization were studied in 37 term infants fed either human milk, whey-predominant formula, or cow's milk formula as the sole nutritional source for 8 weeks. Biochemical analyses of two-hour fasting blood samples, and intakes calculated using three-day dietary records and direct analyses of milk samples were used to evaluate these relationships. Intakes of total nitrogen were positively correlated with plasma valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, and serum urea nitrogen concentrations (r = .46 to .62, P less than .01 to .001). Intakes of the four amino acids whose plasma concentrations were positively correlated with total nitrogen intakes plus four additional amino acids (threonine, tyrosine, histidine, and methionine) were correlated with their respective plasma concentrations (r = .41 to .74, P less than .01 to .001). These relationships have not been previously described in term infants. Compared with values in infants fed human milk, plasma concentrations of valine, phenylalanine, methionine, and serum urea nitrogen were elevated with whey-predominant formula and cow's milk formula feeding. Values for four additional amino acids (threonine, lysine, leucine, and isoleucine) were elevated with whey-predominant formula feeding. Data indicate that altering the whey-to-casein ratio and, thus, the amino acid pattern of formulas will not achieve the desired blood indices characteristic of human milk feeding without a reduction in the total nitrogen content of formulas.     

Urinary excretion of lactose and oligosaccharides in preterm infants fed human milk or infant formula

At present, not much is known about the absorption and metabolism of human milk (HM) oligosaccharides in term and preterm infants. We investigated the renal excretion of lactose and complex oligosaccharides in preterm infants fed HM ( n = 9, mean actual body weight 2290 g) or a cow's milk-based infant formula ( n = 9, mean actual body weight 2470 g). We found that the renal excretion of lactose in HM-fed infants was slightly lower than in formula-fed infants (14.0 ± 7.4 versus 20.4 ± 8.7 mg kg^-1 day^-1, mean ± SD). The excretion of neutral sugars deriving from oligosaccharides was similar in HM-fed and formula-fed infants (3.8 ± 2.1 versus 2.9 ± 0.9mgkg^-1 day^1-); the difference between means was not statistically significant. The separation and characterization of oligosaccharides by high-pH anion exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAE-PAD) and subsequent analysis by fast atom bombardment-mass spectrometry (FAB-MS) revealed a more complex pattern in HM-fed infants compared to the formula-fed group. Lactose-derived oligosaccharides characteristic for HM (e.g lacto- N -tetraose, and lacto- N -fucopentaoses I and II) were excreted in HM-fed but not in formula-fed infants. These results indicate that nutrition has a significant impact on the oligosaccharide composition in urine of preterm infants.     

早产儿/低出生体重儿和足月儿配方粉对住院早产儿生长发育影响的多中心对照研究

目的研究不同组成成分的配方粉对胎龄<34周和（或）出生体重＜2 000 g的住院早产儿早期生长发育的影响,并对早产儿的喂养提出建议 。方法受试对象为上海市3家医院住院的胎龄＜34周或出生体重＜2 000 g的早产儿。分为两组,分别应用Ⅰ号（早产Ⅰ组）和Ⅱ号（早产Ⅱ组 ）配方粉进行喂养。研究采用严格的盲法,试验设计者不参与试验实施,数据整理者为独立的第3方人员,参与试验的医生和患儿家长对两种配 方粉的具体组成成分均不知情。Ⅰ号为适于早产儿的优博早产儿/低出生体重儿配方粉,Ⅱ号为足月儿或胎龄>34周早产儿的优博标准婴儿配方 粉。结果2007年7月至2008年6月,早产Ⅰ组117例,早产Ⅱ组106例进入分析。早产Ⅰ组体重、身长和头围的生长速度均显著快于早产Ⅱ组。试 验期间早产Ⅰ组和早产Ⅱ组的平均体重增加速度分别为12.6 g·kg-1·d-1 和10.6 g·kg-1·d-1（P＜0.001）,头围每周增长分别为0.86 cm 和0.80 cm（P＜0.05）,身长每周增长分别为0.73 cm和0.67 cm（P＜0.05）;按生理性体重下降恢复后计算,早产Ⅰ组和早产Ⅱ组的平均体重 增加速度分别为16.2 g·kg-1·d-1和14.1 g·kg-1·d-1（P＜0.001）,头围每周增长分别为0.96 cm和0.87 cm（P＜0.05）,身长增长分别为 1.08 cm和0.99 cm（P＜0.05）。早产Ⅰ组的宫外发育迟缓（EUGR）发生率（57.3％）低于早产Ⅱ组（72.5％）（P＜0.05）。结论在胎龄＜34 周或出生体重＜2 000 g的早产儿中,应用优博早产儿/低出生体重儿配方粉喂养对早产儿生长发育的影响明显优于优博标准婴儿配方粉,其体 重、身长和头围的生长速度都能够达到理想的宫内生长速度,也可明显降低EUGR的发生率。     

Taurine supplementation prevents hyperaminoacidemia in growing term infants fed high-protein cow's milk formula

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and plasma and urine amino acid concentrations were compared between three cohorts of healthy growing term infants who were breast-fed (BF) or randomly assigned to one of two formulas either taurine non-supplemented (FF) or taurine supplemented (FF + T). The infants were studied from 2 to 12 weeks of age. Weight gain and growth in length was normal and similar in all three feeding groups during the study interval. At 12 weeks BUN was significantly higher in the FF group than in the BF and FF + T groups, 16.5 mg/dl vs 7.0 and 7.3 mg/dl, respectively. Total plasma amino acids (FF group: 240.5 ± 110.1 μmoles/dl; BF group: 180.1 ± 28.7 μmoles/dl; FF + T group: 182.3 ± 89.4 μmoles/dl) and total essential amino acids (FF group: 89.8 ± 37.3 μmoles/dl; BF group: 56.1 ± 16.3 μmoles/dl; FF + T group: 53.0 ± 24.2 μmoles/dl). The urine amino acid concentrations reflected the plasma levels in all groups. These results indicate that taurine supplementation to a high protein formula lowers BUN levels and the plasma and urine amino acid concentrations by some yet unknown mechanism to concentrations similar to those found in breast-fed infants with a much lower protein intake.     

Choice of formula and human milk supplement for preterm infants in Australia

Human milk (HM) is considered to be the optimal feed of choice for neonates, however, for preterm infants, HM fortifiers are often added to increase growth. If HM is unavailable, preterm formula is the next best option for preterm infants. Choosing which fortifier, if any, to use or which formula can be confusing. In this paper, the composition of milk feeds available in Australia and New Zealand is reviewed with the aim of assisting paediatricians to decide which feed is most appropriate for their patients.     

Nutrient intakes of American infants and children fed cow's milk or infant formula

Between April 1984 and August 1984, a national survey, the Ross Laboratories Infant Nutrition Survey, was undertaken to assess patterns of food consumption of American infants ranging in age from 6.5 months to 13.4 months. Nutrient intakes of 865 infants were evaluated according to different foods (milk and milk products, non-iron-fortified formula, iron-fortified formula, infant cereal, commercial baby foods, and home-prepared table foods). Results indicated that most American infants consumed nutrients in appropriate amounts. However, a large proportion of infants who were fed a diet that included cow's milk received amounts of sodium, potassium, and chloride that exceeded the recommended safe and adequate ranges. The median intake of iron of infants fed either cow's milk or a non-iron-fortified formula was below the recommended dietary allowance; a low percentage of these infants received medicinal iron supplementation. The results also indicated that the median estimated renal solute load of the diet of infants fed cow's milk was approximately twice the amount of that of infants fed formula. These data may be useful in the development of nutritional programs for older infants.     

Plasma amino acid and protein concentrations in infants fed human milk or a whey protein hydrolysate formula during the first month of life

The aim of the study was to compare growth parameters, biochemical indices of protein metabolism and plasma amino acid concentrations in infants fed either human milk ( n = 12) or a whey protein hydrolysate formula ( n = 13) during the first month of life. Growth and gain in skin fold thickness were similar in both groups whereas serum protein concentration was significantly decreased (57.4 ± 3.9 versus 61.2 ± 2.9 g/l) in the infants fed the whey hydrolysate formula. The discrepancies between the plasma amino acid pattern of the whey hydrolysate formula group and that of the human milk group lessened during the first month. Nevertheless, at a mean age of 33 days the plasma threonine concentration remained twice as high and the plasma tyrosine, phenylalanine and proline concentrations were Significantly lower in the whey hydrolysate formula group than in the human milk group. Thus, compared with breast-fed infants, growth and most of the biological indices of protein metabolism were satisfactory in infants fed during the first month of life on a whey protein hydrolysate formula. Nevertheless, the decrease in total plasma protein concentration needs to be confirmed in a larger cohort of infants. In addition, further research is necessary to investigate the possible ways of reducing the hyperthreoninemia and preventing other plasma amino acid disturbances since it would be desirable to obtain plasma amino acid levels similar to those of breast-fed infants.     

Prediction of the development of tolerance to milk in children with cow's milk hypersensitivity

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether the development of tolerance to cow's milk (CM) by aged 4 years can be predicted with a skin prick test (SPT) and measurements of total or specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the serum, taken at the time of diagnosis of cow's milk hypersensitivity (CMH). STUDY DESIGN: Infants with immediate (n=95) or delayed (n=67) challenge reactions to CM were prospectively followed to aged 4 years. CMH status was assessed annually by CM challenges. RESULTS: By aged 2, 3, and 4 years, children with delayed reactions developed tolerance to CM faster than those with immediate reactions: 64%, 92%, and 96% versus 31%, 53%, and 63%, respectively. A wheal size of <5 mm in SPT correctly identified 83% of 124 infants who developed tolerance to CM by aged 4 years, and a wheal size of >or=5 mm in SPT correctly identified 71% of 39 infants with persistent CMH. Milk-specific IgE <2 kU/L correctly identified 82% of infants who developed tolerance to CM, and milk-specific IgE >or=2 kU/L correctly identified 71% of infants with persistent CMH. CONCLUSION: SPT and milk-specific IgE in the serum are useful prognostic indicators of the development of tolerance to CM in infants with CMH.     

Lymphoid nodular hyperplasia and cow's milk hypersensitivity in children with chronic constipation

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the incidence of cow's milk allergy as evidenced by milk challenge and the findings of endoscopic and immunohistochemical examinations in children with chronic and refractory constipation. STUDY DESIGN: Thirty-five study subjects (mean age, 8.3 +/- 3.3 years; range, 3-15 years; 17 girls) and 15 control subjects (mean age, 11.7 +/- 3.2 years; range, 2-15 years; 9 girls) were studied by colonoscopy and a 4-week cow's milk elimination and challenge. RESULTS: Lymphoid nodular hyperplasia was the most prominent endoscopic finding in half of the subjects (46%), mostly occurring patchily in the transverse colon. Histologic findings other than lymphoid accumulation and mildly increased density of eosinophils were few. During the milk elimination and with supportive medication, 83% of subjects remitted. Constipation and/or other gastrointestinal or skin symptoms relapsed only in one third (34%) during the cow's milk challenge, these having significantly higher densities of intraepithelial gammadelta + T cells ( P <.001) in the biopsy samples of the terminal ileum as compared with the control subjects. CONCLUSIONS: We were able to find formal evidence for the presence of cow's milk allergy in children with chronic constipation.     

人乳与早产儿配方乳喂养对早产儿生长的Meta分析

目的对单纯人乳、强化人乳和早产儿配方乳喂养早产儿的生长进行评价。方法检索PubMed、ScienceDirect、EBSCOHost 、EMBASE 、OVID 、Cochrane图书 馆、维普中文科技期刊数据库和中国期刊全文数据库,并手工检索会议记录和专 题论文集等,收集关于单纯人乳、强化人乳与早产儿配方乳喂养早产儿的RCT研究 ,进行文献筛选和质量评价,采用RevMan 5.0.18软件进行Meta分析,计量资料采 用加权均数差（WMD）及其95％CI表示。无法进行合并分析的资料进行描述性分析 。结果共纳入7篇文献,文献质量评价5篇为B级,2篇为C级。Meta分析结果显示：① 对近期生长的影响：单纯人乳喂养组新生儿期体重增加速度（WMD＝-6.03,95％ CI：-9.58～-2.47,P=0.000 9）、身长增长速度（WMD＝-1.96,95％CI：-2.77 ～-1.16,P<0.000 01）及头围增长速度（WMD＝-2.04,95%CI：-3.71～-0.37, P=0.02）均显著慢于早产儿配方乳喂养组;强化人乳喂养组新生儿期体重、身长和 头围的增长速度与早产儿配方乳喂养组差异均无统计学意义。②对远期生长的影 响：单纯人乳喂养组与早产儿配方乳喂养组随访至9和18个月,以及7.5~8岁时的 体重、身长（高）和头围的差异均无统计学意义。结论现有证据提示,强化人乳喂养可促进早产儿生后近期内生长,单纯人乳和强 化人乳对早产儿远期生长的影响仍需进一步研究。     

Decreased production of specific antibodies to cow's milk proteins in premature infants during the first six months of life

Concentrations of IgG and IgM antibodies to casein, β-lactoglobulin, lactalbumin and bovine serum albumin (BSA) in sera of premature infants of less than 36 weeks gestation, at 5 weeks of age, were less than in age-matched term infants. At 6 months of age IgG antibodies to BSA in preterms were still significantly lower than in term infants.     

A metabolic balance study in term infants fed lactose-containing or lactose-free formula

Lactose-free (L-) formulas are recommended for infants with conditions affecting lactose digestion. Cows' milk protein-based formulas containing other carbohydrate sources are most often used for such infants. This study compared fat absorption and absorption and retention of nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in term infants fed either a L- or standard lactose-containing (L+) bovine milk protein-based formula. Data from three single-centre, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group metabolic balance studies were combined. After a 4-7-d equilibration period on either L- or L+ formula, a 72-h balance study was performed. Twenty infants received L- and 21 received L+ formula. Besides the L- group having a higher percentage of males (65%) and the L+ group a higher percentage of females (52.4%), other baseline measurements were similar. The majority of nutrient balance data was similar between the two groups. Exceptions were relative nitrogen absorption, calcium intake and calcium retention, magnesium retention, and faecal phosphorus excretion, all of which were significantly higher in the L- group. Vitamin D supplementation did not significantly affect either calcium or phosphorus data. This new L- formula provided similar nutrients and is a suitable alternative to a L+ formula in term infants requiring L- feedings.     

Safety and efficacy of a new extensively hydrolyzed formula for infants with cow's milk protein allergy

Cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA) is best treated by complete elimination of cow's milk from the diet. For infants with CMPA who cannot be breast-fed, formulas based on extensively hydrolyzed proteins or on amino acids are the preferred substitutes for cow's milk-based formulas. In this study, we compared the tolerance and growth of infants with CMPA who were fed a new extensively hydrolyzed formula containing lactose (eHF) with those who were fed an amino acid formula (AAF). This was a prospective, multi-center, randomized, reference-controlled study. Seventy-seven infants <12 months old with suspected CMPA were enrolled. In 66 of these, CMPA was confirmed by oral challenge in a double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC) or by a medical history of severe allergic reaction to cow's milk and a positive skin prick test. These infants were then tested for their reaction to eHF and AAF in a DBPCFC. All infants tolerated both formulas and were randomized to receive either eHF (n = 34) or AAF (n = 32) for 180 days. Growth (weight, length, and head circumference) and tolerance [skin, gastro-intestinal, and respiratory tract symptoms of allergy] were evaluated after 30, 60, 90, and 180 days. There were no significant differences between the two groups in any of the growth measurements. Length and head circumference were similar to Euro-growth standards, but weight was slightly lower. Gastro-intestinal and respiratory tract symptoms of allergy were also similar in the two groups. However, whereas SCORAD scores for atopic dermatitis remained constant throughout the study in infants-fed eHF, there was a slight decrease in those fed AAF. Infants-fed eHF had significantly fewer incidents of vomiting than infants-fed AAF and a significantly higher frequency of soft stools. The new eHF is safe and well tolerated in infants diagnosed with CMPA.     

Fatty acid balance studies in term infants fed formula milk containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) are thought to be required for optimal nervous system development in the newborn. A commercial milk formula containing LCP (Aptamil-LCP) with a fatty acid profile closely resembling breast milk, has recently been introduced for term infants. The absorption of fatty acids in term infants was examined in a double-blind randomized controlled trial comparing Aptamil-LCP ( n = 20) and standard Aptamil ( n = 20). Formula-fed newborn infants were studied from birth for 14 d. Fat balances (3 d) were performed from d 10. A 3-d stool collection was performed from d 10 in a parallel breastfed group ( n = 21). Plasma samples were taken on d 6. Median fat excretion (mg kg⁻¹) was 897.1, 615.0 and 355.2 with Aptamil, Aptamil-LCP and breastfeeding, respectively. The median total fat absorption coefficient in Aptamil-LCP-fed infants was higher than in those fed standard Aptamil ( p < 0:01). These findings were accounted for by differences in the excretion and absorption of long-chain saturated fatty acids (C14:0, C16:0 and C18:0). Higher fat excretion was associated with bulkier and firmer stools. Only trace amounts of LCP were detected in the stools of all groups. This accounted for less than 4% of dietary intake in Aptamil-LCP-fed infants. No differences in the utilization of LCP from Aptamil-LCP and breast milk feeding were apparent. Plasma phospholipid fatty acid composition data reflected differences in dietary LCP intake. Thus, PL LCP levels were highest in the breastfed infants and lowest in the Aptamil-fed infants, with values for the Aptamil-LCP-fed group falling in between.