Impact of treadmill locomotor training on skeletal muscle IGF1 and myogenic regulatory factors in spinal cord injured rats

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of treadmill locomotor training on the expression of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF1) and changes in myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) in rat soleus muscle following spinal cord injury (SCI). Moderate, midthoracic (T₈) contusion SCIs were produced using a NYU (New York University) impactor. Animals were randomly assigned to treadmill training or untrained groups. Rats in the training group were trained starting at 1 week after SCI, for either 3 bouts of 20 min over 1.5 days or 10 bouts over 5 days. Five days of treadmill training completely prevented the decrease in soleus fiber size resulting from SCI. In addition, treadmill training triggered increases in IGF1, MGF and IGFBP4 mRNA expression, and a concurrent reduction of IGFBP5 mRNA in skeletal muscle. Locomotor training also caused an increase in markers of muscle regeneration, including small muscle fibers expressing embryonic myosin and Pax7 positive nuclei and increased expression of the MRFs, myogenin and MyoD. We concluded that treadmill locomotor training ameliorated muscle atrophy in moderate contusion SCI rats. Training-induced muscle regeneration and fiber hypertrophy following SCI was associated with an increase in IGF1, an increase in Pax7 positive nuclei, and upregulation of MRFs.     

Interrelations of myogenic response, progressive atrophy of muscle fibers, and cell death in denervated skeletal muscle

Little is known concerning the time-course and structural dynamics of reactivation of compensatory myogenesis in denervated muscle, its initiating cellular mechanisms, and the relationship between this process and the progression of postdenervation atrophy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interrelations between temporal and spatial patterns of the myogenic response in denervated muscle and progressive atrophy of muscle fibers. Another objective was to study whether reactivation of myogenesis correlates with destabilization of the differentiated state and death of denervated muscle cells. It has remained unclear whether muscle fiber atrophy was the primary factor activating the myogenic response, what levels of cellular atrophy were associated with its activation, and whether the initiation and intensity of myogenesis depended on the local and individual heterogeneity of atrophic changes among fibers. For this reason, our objective was also to identify the levels of atrophic and degenerative changes in denervated muscle fibers that are correlated with activation of the myogenic response. We found that the reactivation of myogenesis in the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles of the rat starts between days 10-21 following nerve transection, before atrophy has attained advanced level, long before dead cells are found in the tissue. Formation of new muscle fibers reaches its maximum between 2 and 4 months following denervation and gradually decreases with progressive postdenervation atrophy. The myogenic response is biphasic and includes two distinct processes. The first process resembles the formation of secondary and tertiary generations of myotubes during normal muscle development and dominates during the first 2 months of denervation. During this period, activated satellite cells form new myotubes on live differentiated muscle fibers. Most of the daughter myotubes in 1- and 2-month denervated muscle develop on the surface of fast type parent muscle fibers, and some of the newly formed muscle fibers express slow myosin. Some fast type parent fibers are weakly or, more rarely, moderately immunopositive for embryonic isomyosin. This indicates that reactivation of myogenesis may also depend on the fiber type. The level of atrophy, destabilization of the differentiated myofiber phenotype, and degenerative changes of individual fibers in denervated muscle are very heterogeneous. The myogenic response of the first type is associated predominantly with fibers of average and higher than average levels of atrophy. Muscle cells that undergo a lesser degree of atrophy also form daughter fibers, although with a lower incidence. We did not find any correlation between the size of newly formed fibers and the level of atrophy of parent fibers. The topographical distribution of new myotubes both in the peripheral and central areas of the mid-belly equatorial sections at the early stages following nerve transection indicates that myogenesis of the first type represents a systemic reaction of muscle to the loss of neural control. These data indicate that activation of the myogenic response does not depend on cell death and degenerative processes per se. The second type of myogenesis is a typical regenerative reaction that occurs mainly within the spaces surrounded by the basal laminae of dead muscle fibers. Myocytes of different sizes are susceptible to degeneration and death, which indicates that cell death in denervated muscle does not correlate with levels of muscle cell atrophy. The regenerative process frequently results in development of abnormal muscle cells that branch or form small clusters. Replacement of lost fibers becomes activated between 2 and 4 months following nerve transection, i.e., mainly at advanced stages of postdenervation atrophy, when cell death becomes a contributing factor of the atrophic process. In long-term denervated muscle, the first and second types of myogenesisoccur concurrently, and the topographical distribution of the myogenic response becomes more heterogeneous than during the first weeks following denervation. Thus, our data demonstrate differential temporal and spatial expression of two patterns of myogenesis in denervated muscle that appear to be controlled by different regulatory mechanisms during the postdenervation period. (c) 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Autologous bone marrow-derived cells enhance muscle strength following skeletal muscle crush injury in rats

Insufficient post-traumatic skeletal muscle regeneration with consecutive functional deficiency continues to be a serious problem in orthopedic and trauma surgery. Transplantation of autologous muscle precursor cells has shown encouraging results in muscle trauma treatment but is associated with significant donor site morbidity. In contrast to this, bone marrow-derived (BMD) cells can be obtained without any functional deficit by puncture. The goal of this study was to examine whether regular muscle regeneration can be improved by local application of autologous BMD cells in a rat model of blunt skeletal muscle trauma. One week after standardized open blunt crush injury to the left soleus muscle, 10(6) autologous BMD cells were injected into the traumatized muscle of male Sprague Dawley rats. Rats of the control group received saline solution as treatment. Three weeks after application, the fast twitch and tetanic contraction capacity of the soleus muscles was measured bilaterally by stimulating the sciatic nerves. Contraction forces of injured soleus muscles in control animals recovered to 39 +/- 10% (tetanic) and 59 +/- 12% (fast twitch) of the contralateral noninjured soleus muscles (p < 0.001). In contrast, autologous BMD cell injection significantly restored contractile forces to 53 +/- 8% (tetanic) and 72 +/- 13% (fast twitch) compared to those observed in contralateral noninjured soleus muscles. Thus, muscle function was significantly increased by BMD cell treatment (tetanic, p = 0.014; fast twitch, p = 0.05). In conclusion, autologous BMD cell grafting leads to an increase in contraction force, 14% in tetanic and 13% in fast twitch stimulation, demonstrating its potential to improve functional outcome after skeletal muscle crush injury.     

Human skeletal muscle cell differentiation is associated with changes in myogenic markers and enhanced insulin-mediated MAPK and PKB phosphorylation

AIM: We hypothesized that myogenic differentiation of HSMC would yield a more insulin responsive phenotype. METHODS: We assessed expression of several proteins involved in insulin action or myogenesis during differentiation of primary human skeletal muscle cultures (HSMC). RESULTS: Differentiation increased creatine kinase activity and expression of desmin and myocyte enhancer factor (MEF)2C. No change in expression was observed for big mitogen-activated protein kinase (BMK1/ERK5), MEF2A, insulin receptor (IR), hexokinase II, and IR substrates 1 and 2, while expression of glycogen synthase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2 MAP kinase) and the insulin responsive aminopeptidase increased after differentiation. In contrast to protein kinase B (PKB)a, expression of (PKB)b increased, with differentiation. Both basal and insulin-stimulated PI 3-kinase activity increased with differentiation. Insulin-mediated phosphorylation of PKB and ERK1/2 MAP kinase increased after differentiation. CONCLUSION: Components of the insulin-signalling machinery are expressed in myoblast and myotube HSMC; however, insulin responsiveness to PKB and ERK MAP kinase phosphorylation increases with differentiation.     

Insulin resistance in thermally-injured rats is associated with post-receptor alterations in skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue

Several of the possible molecular mechanisms that contribute to the insulin resistance associated with burn injury were examined in a rat model of thermal injury. Rats were subjected to full thickness scald injury (25% total body surface area, 10 sec burn) and resuscitated with saline. After 1, 2 and 3 weeks, urinary C-peptide excretion was measured in burned and sham-treated control animals. At 3 weeks after injury, glucose production by the liver and utilization by skeletal muscle was measured under insulin clamp conditions, insulin receptor binding was measured in skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue membranes and IRS-1 expression was measured by Western blot methods. Urinary C-peptide excretion was significantly elevated at 1, 2 and 3 weeks after injury. At 3 weeks after injury, several key metabolic processes were blunted, including the ability of insulin infusion to stimulate glucose uptake by skeletal muscle, the potency of insulin infusion for inhibiting hepatic glucose production, and the ability of a bolus injection of insulin to simulate phosphorylation of IRS-1 in liver, skeletal muscle or adipose tissue. In contrast, there were no apparent alterations in the binding of insulin to membranes from liver, skeletal muscle or adipose tissue. These findings support the concept that the burn injury stimulates insulin production 3 weeks after burn injury, and produces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver by processes that are associated with post-receptor alterations in the absence of changes in insulin receptor binding.     

被动训练促进失神经肌萎缩模型大鼠骨骼肌结构和功能的恢复

文题释义：肌肉萎缩：是指横纹肌营养障碍,肌肉纤维变细甚至消失等导致的肌肉体积缩小。多由肌肉本身疾患或神经系统功能障碍所致,病因主要有：神经源性肌萎缩、肌源性肌萎缩、失用性肌萎缩和其他原因性肌萎缩。肌肉营养状况除肌肉组织本身的病理变化外,更与神经系统有密切关系。脊髓疾病常导致肌肉营养不良而发生肌肉萎缩。 肌卫星细胞：是一类存在于肌细胞基底膜与肌膜之间的成体干细胞,作为肌源性干细胞在肌肉组织损伤后,能够在激活后发挥良好的增殖、分化能力,在骨骼肌损伤的修复和再生过程中发挥重要作用。 背景：炎症细胞或炎性因子参与失神经损伤后骨骼肌肌卫星细胞的增殖和分化,在失神经骨骼肌肌组织病理过程中起着重要的作用。 目的：研究被动康复训练对失神经萎缩大鼠骨骼肌结构、功能以及肌动蛋白和炎症因子表达的影响。 方法：将30只SD大鼠平均分为假手术组、模型组和训练组,模型组及训练组大鼠暴露坐骨神经并剪断,假手术组只暴露而不剪断坐骨神经。造模后2个月始用自制滚筒对训练组大鼠进行被动康复训练2个月,用肌肉湿质量比和BBB评分评估肌肉萎缩的程度及运动功能,苏木精-伊红染色观察肌纤维微细结构及横截面积,免疫组化染色检测各组腓肠肌肌动蛋白及肿瘤坏死因子α、白细胞介素6及白细胞介素1β表达。实验经沈阳医学院实验动物福利伦理委员会的审批,批准文号为SYYXY2015010601。结果与结论：①训练组BBB评分高于模型组;②训练组腓肠肌湿质量高于模型组但肌纤维的横截面积却低于模型组(P < 0.001,P < 0.05),训练组腓肠肌肌动蛋白表达高于模型组(P < 0.001);③训练组炎症因子肿瘤坏死因子α、白细胞介素6及白细胞介素1β的表达水平低于模型组(P < 0.001或P < 0.05);④结果说明,被动训练有助于失神经萎缩肌肉结构和功能的恢复,降低炎症因子的水平防止肌肉的进一步萎缩,提高骨骼肌的肌力。 ORCID: 0000-0002-9303-8651(王世杨) 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：组织构建;骨细胞;软骨细胞;细胞培养;成纤维细胞;血管内皮细胞;骨质疏松;组织工程     

Human skeletal muscle cell differentiation is associated with changes in myogenic markers and enhanced insulin‐mediated MAPK and PKB phosphorylation

Aim: We hypothesized that myogenic differentiation of HSMC would yield a more insulin responsive phenotype. Methods: We assessed expression of several proteins involved in insulin action or myogenesis during differentiation of primary human skeletal muscle cultures (HSMC). Results: Differentiation increased creatine kinase activity and expression of desmin and myocyte enhancer factor (MEF)2C. No change in expression was observed for big mitogen‐activated protein kinase (BMK1/ERK5), MEF2A, insulin receptor (IR), hexokinase II, and IR substrates 1 and 2, while expression of glycogen synthase, extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2 MAP kinase) and the insulin responsive aminopeptidase increased after differentiation. In contrast to protein kinase B (PKB)a, expression of (PKB)b increased, with differentiation. Both basal and insulin‐stimulated PI 3‐kinase activity increased with differentiation. Insulin‐mediated phosphorylation of PKB and ERK1/2 MAP kinase increased after differentiation. Conclusion: Components of the insulin‐signalling machinery are expressed in myoblast and myotube HSMC; however, insulin responsiveness to PKB and ERK MAP kinase phosphorylation increases with differentiation.     

Impaired vasomodulation is associated with reduced neuronal nitric oxide synthase in skeletal muscle of ovariectomized rats

In exercising skeletal muscle, vasoconstrictor responses to α-adrenoceptor activation are attenuated in part by nitric oxide (NO) produced by the neuronal isoform of NO synthase (nNOS), which is expressed constitutively in skeletal muscle cells. In skeletal muscle of pregnant animals, nNOS mRNA is upregulated, suggesting that muscle nNOS expression is modulated by the steroid hormone oestrogen. Whether oestrogen-induced changes in nNOS expression have measurable effects on vasoregulation in skeletal muscle is unknown. In this study, we hypothesized that oestrogen deficiency would reduce muscle nNOS expression, resulting in impaired modulation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in exercising skeletal muscle. Compared to gonadally intact rats, we found that ovariectomized (OVX) rats were characterized by greater sympathetic vasoconstriction in contracting hindlimb and reduced nNOS, but not eNOS, in skeletal muscle. In addition, NOS inhibition resulted in a greater enhancement of sympathetic vasoconstriction in contracting hindlimbs of intact compared to OVX rats. These effects of oestrogen deficiency were prevented by chronic treatment of OVX rats with 17β-oestradiol, but not with chronic progesterone or acute oestradiol. Further analysis revealed that skeletal muscle nNOS correlated directly with plasma 17β-oestradiol and inversely with the magnitude of sympathetic vasoconstrictor responses in contracting hindlimbs. These data indicate that NO-dependent attenuation of sympathetic vasoconstriction in contracting skeletal muscle is impaired in oestrogen-deficient female rats, and suggest that this impairment may be mediated by reduced skeletal muscle nNOS expression.     

A 63 kDa skeletal muscle protein associated with eye muscle inflammation in Graves' disease is identified as the calcium binding protein calsequestrin

It is generally accepted that thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) is an autoimmune disease of the eye muscle (EM) and the surrounding orbital connective tissue in which circulating antibodies play an important role. Antibodies against EM membrane proteins of 63-67kDa mol. wt. seem to be the best markers of ophthalmopathy in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease. We purified a 63 kDa EM protein using SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis technology and TAO patients' sera as probes, digested the protein with cyanogen bromide and sequenced immunoreactive peptides. We also screened a human EM library with a rabbit antiserum against 63-65 kDa proteins and affinity purified antibodies from a TAO patient's serum that reacted with a 55 kDa EM membrane protein. From partial sequence information and from DNA sequencing of positive cDNA clones, the protein was identified as calsequestrin, a 63 kDa calcium binding protein localized in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fiber. As determined by Northern blotting, calsequestrin was expressed in EM and other skeletal muscle but not thyroid or fibroblasts. Calsequestrin is different from the "64 kDa protein", which has been identified as succinate dehydrogenase flavoprotein subunit, which has a corrected mol. wt. of 67 kDa. Serum antibodies against calsequestrin were found in 40% of patients with clinically active TAO, but in only 4% of those with stable eye disease, and in 5% of normal subjects, by immunoblotting. Although it is possible that autoimmunity against calsequestrin plays a role in the progressive EM damage that characterizes ophthalmopathy it is more likely that the antibodies are secondary to a reaction against some other cell membrane protein, such as the novel thyroid and eye muscle shared protein G2s or the TSH receptor.     

Brain monoamine metabolism is altered in rats following spontaneous, long-distance running

Brain monoamine metabolism in rats was studied during spontaneous, long-term running in a microprocessor-controlled wheel cage. Immediately after heavy spontaneous exercise, DOPA accumulation was decreased in dopamine-rich brain regions such as the limbic forebrain and corpus striatum, indicating a decreased rate of synthesis of dopamine in brain. In contrast, DOPA accumulation was increased in the noradrenaline-predominated region of the brain stem, indicating an increased synthesis of noradrenaline in this region. Alterations in brain monoamine metabolism were normalized in exercising animals analysed 24 h after the last running period. Changes in brain monoamine metabolism may be involved in the mechanisms underlying the clinically observed psychological effects of physical exercise.     

Human labour is associated with altered regulatory T cell function and maternal immune activation

During human pregnancy, regulatory T cell (T_reg) function is enhanced and immune activation is repressed allowing the growth and development of the feto–placental unit. Here, we have investigated whether human labour is associated with a reversal of the pregnancy-induced changes in the maternal immune system. We tested the hypothesis that human labour is associated with a decline in T_reg function, specifically their ability to modulate Toll-like receptor (TLR)-induced immune responses. We studied the changes in cell number, activation status and functional behaviour of peripheral blood, myometrial (myoMC) and cord blood mononuclear cells (CBMC) with the onset of labour. We found that T_reg function declines and that T_reg cellular targets change with labour onset. The changes in T_reg function were associated with increased activation of myoMC, assessed by their expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules and CBMC inflammatory cells. The innate immune system showed increased activation, as shown by altered monocyte and neutrophil cell phenotypes, possibly to be ready to respond to microbial invasion after birth or to contribute to tissue remodelling. Our results highlight changes in the function of the adaptive and innate immune systems that may have important roles in the onset of human labour.     

氯化胆碱与制动性骨骼肌萎缩肌肉生成抑制素mRNA的表达

背景：研究发现类胆碱物质可增加乙酰胆碱的弥散及终板电流的幅度,对神经肌肉接点功能退化有一定的对抗作用。 目的：观察氯化胆碱对制动性骨骼肌萎缩的防治作用及对骨骼肌萎缩大鼠肌肉生成抑制素mRNA表达的影响。 方法：将30只雄性SD大鼠随机分为对照组、模型组和治疗组,每组10只。采用可塑性石膏固定模型组和治疗组大鼠右后肢制备肌萎缩模型。治疗组每日灌胃氯化胆碱(150 mg/kg),对照组和模型组灌胃等体积蒸馏水。4周后解剖右后肢腓肠肌,检测腓肠肌收缩张力、肌湿质量、蛋白质水平及肌肉生成抑制素mRNA的表达。 结果与结论：与对照组比较,模型组大鼠腓肠肌的收缩张力、肌湿质量、蛋白质水平均显著降低(P < 0.05或P < 0.01),肌肉生成抑制素mRNA表达显著增高(P < 0.01)。与模型组比较,治疗组大鼠腓肠肌的收缩张力、肌湿质量、蛋白质水平均显著升高(P < 0.05),肌肉生成抑制素mRNA表达显著降低(P < 0.05)。说明氯化胆碱能够显著提高制动性萎缩骨骼肌的收缩张力、肌湿质量、蛋白质水平,减少肌肉生成抑制素mRNA的表达,从而有效抑制骨骼肌制动性萎缩的发生。     

Ovarian hormone status and skeletal muscle inflammation during recovery from disuse in rats

Resumption of normal muscle loading after a period of disuse initiates cellular processes related to mass accretion. The renewed loading also induces a significant amount of muscle damage and subsequent inflammation. Ovarian hormone depletion delays atrophied myofibre mass recovery. Ovarian hormones are also global regulators of immune system function. The purpose of this study was to determine whether ovarian hormone depletion-induced deficits in myofibre regrowth after disuse atrophy are related to the induction of muscle damage and the associated inflammatory response. We hypothesized that soleus muscle immune cell infiltration and inflammatory gene expression would be both accentuated and prolonged in ovarian hormone-depleted rats during the first week of recovery from disuse atrophy. Intact and ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were subjected to hindlimb suspension for 10 days and then returned to normal ambulation for a recovery period, the rats were killed and the soleus muscle removed for analysis. Although reloading increased both circulating creatine kinase and myofibre membrane disruption, there was no effect of ovarian hormones on these processes during recovery. Muscle neutrophil concentration was increased above baseline regardless of hormone status at days 1 and 3 of recovery; however, this increase was 43% greater at day 3 in the OVX group. Muscle ED1+ and ED2+ macrophage concentrations were increased during recovery in both groups. However, macropage concentrations remained elevated at day 7 of recovery in the OVX group, whereas they returned to control levels in the intact group. Cyclo-oxygenase-2, interleukin-6 and interleukin-1beta muscle mRNA expression increased similarly during recovery, regardless of ovarian hormone status. These results demonstrate that the initial myofibre damage and inflammatory gene expression induced during muscle recovery from disuse atrophy are independent of ovarian hormone status.     

Muscle dysfunction during exercise of a single skeletal muscle in rats with congestive heart failure is not associated with reduced muscle blood supply

AIM: Inadequate muscle blood flow is a possible explanation for reduced fatigue resistance in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF). METHODS: In rats with post-infarction CHF we electrically stimulated the soleus muscle (SOL) in situ with intact blood supply. Contractile properties, blood flow, high-energy phosphates and metabolites were measured during 30 min of intermittent stimulation, and in addition capillarization of SOL was recorded. RESULTS: During stimulation, SOL contracted more slowly in rats with CHF compared with sham-operated rats. However, the blood flow in SOL was unaltered and capillary density was maintained in CHF rats. Further, the content of ATP, ADP, AMP, NAD, CrP, P(i) and lactate in SOL was not different between the groups. CONCLUSION: The cause of contractile dysfunction in a single exercising skeletal muscle in rats with CHF cannot be explained simply by reduced blood supply. In addition, absence of changes in high-energy phosphates and metabolites indicate that the oxidative metabolism of SOL is intact in rats with CHF.     

Neurological heterotopic ossification following spinal cord injury is triggered by macrophage‐mediated inflammation in muscle

Neurological heterotopic ossification (NHO) is the abnormal formation of bone in soft tissues as a consequence of spinal cord or traumatic brain injury. NHO causes pain, ankyloses, vascular and nerve compression and delays rehabilitation in this high‐morbidity patient group. The pathological mechanisms leading to NHO remain unknown and consequently there are no therapeutic options to prevent or reduce NHO. Genetically modified mouse models of rare genetic forms of heterotopic ossification (HO) exist, but their relevance to NHO is questionable. Consequently, we developed the first model of spinal cord injury (SCI)‐induced NHO in genetically unmodified mice. Formation of NHO, measured by micro‐computed tomography, required the combination of both SCI and localized muscular inflammation. Our NHO model faithfully reproduced many clinical features of NHO in SCI patients and both human and mouse NHO tissues contained macrophages. Muscle‐derived mesenchymal progenitors underwent osteoblast differentiation in vitro in response to serum from NHO mice without additional exogenous osteogenic stimuli. Substance P was identified as a candidate NHO systemic neuropeptide, as it was significantly elevated in the serum of NHO patients. However, antagonism of substance P receptor in our NHO model only modestly reduced the volume of NHO. In contrast, ablation of phagocytic macrophages with clodronate‐loaded liposomes reduced the size of NHO by 90%, supporting the conclusion that NHO is highly dependent on inflammation and phagocytic macrophages in soft tissues. Overall, we have developed the first clinically relevant model of NHO and demonstrated that a combined insult of neurological injury and soft tissue inflammation drives NHO pathophysiology. Copyright © 2015 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Irreversible splenic atrophy following chronic LCMV infection is associated with compromised immunity in mice

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus clone 13 (LCMV13) infection of mice is a widely used model for investigating the mechanisms driving persistent viral infection in humans. LCMV13 disrupts splenic architecture early during infection, but this returns to normal within a few weeks. However, the long‐term effects of LCMV13 infection on splenic structure have not been reported. Here, we report that persistent infection with LCMV13 results in sustained splenic atrophy that persists for at least 500 days following infection, whereas infection with the acutely infecting LCMV Armstrong is associated with a return to preinfection spleen weights. Splenic atrophy is associated with loss of T, B, and non‐B non‐T cells, with B cells most significantly affected. These effects were partly ameliorated by anti‐NK1.1 or anti‐CD8 antibody treatment. Antigen presentation was detectable at the time of contraction of the spleen, but no longer detected at late time points, suggesting that continued antigen presentation is not required to maintain splenic atrophy. Immunity to Salmonella infection and influenza vaccination were decreased after the virus was no longer detected. Thus splenic atrophy following LCMV13 infection is irreversible and may contribute to impaired immunity following clearance of LCMV13.     

Effect of eccentric and concentric contraction mode on myogenic regulatory factors expression in human vastus lateralis muscle

Skeletal muscle contractions are caused to release myokines by muscle fiber. This study investigated the myogenic regulatory factors, as MHC I, IIA, IIX, Myo-D, MRF4, Murf, Atrogin-1, Decorin, Myonection, and IL-15 mRNA expression in the response of eccentric vs concentric contraction. Eighteen healthy men were randomly divided into two eccentric and concentric groups, each of 9 persons. Isokinetic contraction protocols included maximal single-leg eccentric or concentric knee extension tasks at 60°/s with the dominant leg. Contractions consisted of a maximum of 12 sets of 10 reps, and the rest time between each set was 30 s. The baseline biopsy was performed 4 weeks before the study, and post-test biopsies were taken immediately after exercise protocols from the vastus lateralis muscle. The gene expression levels were evaluated using Real-Time PCR methods. The eccentric group showed a significantly lower RPE score than the concentric group (P?≤?0.05). A significant difference in MyoD, MRF4, Myonection, and Decorin mRNA, were observed following eccentric or concentric contractions (P?≤?0.05). The MHC I, MHC IIA, IL-15 mRNA has been changed significantly compared to the pre-exercise in the concentric group (P?≤?0.05). While only MHC IIX and Atrogin-1 mRNA changed significantly in the eccentric group (P?≤?0.05). Additionally, the results showed a significant difference in MyoD, MRF4, IL-15, and Decorin at the follow-up values between eccentric or concentric groups (P?≤?0.05). Our findings highlight the growing importance of elucidating the different responses of muscle growth factors associated with a myogenic activity such as MHC IIA, Decorin, IL-15, Myonectin, Decorin, MuRF1, and MHC IIX mRNA in following various types of exercise.