DNA甲基转移酶在肿瘤形成中的研究进展

DNA甲基化是基因表达调控中重要的调节方式之一，可通过影响癌基因和抑癌基因的表达以及基因组的稳定性而参与肿瘤形成。DNA甲基化是由DNA甲基转移酶（DNMT）催化发生并维持的，并认为DNMT活性增高是肿瘤细胞具有特征的早期分子改变，因而受到越来越多的学者关注。     

DNA 甲基转移酶在肿瘤发病机制中的研究进展

DNA甲基化是表观遗传学的主要形式,而DNA甲基转移酶（ DNMTs）是DNA甲基化的主要调节酶,DNA甲基转移酶的激活参与了肿瘤的发生和发展过程,同时伴有肿瘤抑制基因的高甲基化沉默和低表达,是病人预后不良的标志;DNA甲基转移酶3b（ DNMT3b）的多态性及吸烟所致的DNMTs表达的改变是肿瘤发生的危险因素,靶向DNMTs治疗由于其细胞毒性小,是当前研究的一个热点。本文就DNA甲基转移酶在肿瘤发病机制中的作用做一综述。     

DNA甲基转移酶3A基因与肿瘤发生的分子调控机制研究进展

DNA甲基化是最重要的表观遗传修饰之一,在基因表达、基因组印记、X染色体失活和肿瘤发生的调节中发挥关键作用。DNA甲基转移酶3A（DNMT3A）被称为从头甲基转移酶,负责在胚胎发生期间建立DNA甲基化模式并在生殖细胞发育期间建立基因组印记,其异常表达与肿瘤的发生发展密切相关。本文就DNA甲基转移酶3A基因与肿瘤发生的分子调控机制作一综述。     

DNA修复基因MGMT启动子区过甲基化与食管鳞状细胞癌

目的：O^6－甲基鸟嘌呤DNA甲基转移酶（MGMT）可以转移DNA加合物O^6－甲基鸟嘌呤中的甲基,从而修复DNA损伤,许多肿瘤中发现MGMT基因启动子过甲基化导致该基因失活,我们研究了MGMT基因启动子甲基化状态与食管癌的关系。方法：采用甲基化特异性聚合酶链反应及测序方法分析食管癌。癌旁组织和正常食管上皮中MGMT启动子甲基化状态。结果：在检测的199例食管癌组织中,46例（38．7％）有MGMT基因启动子过甲基化,相应癌旁组织22例中也有5例（22．7％）出现MGMT基因甲基化,而21例正常食管上皮均无此种改变。结论：MGMT基因启动子过甲基化是食管癌中常见的分子事件,可能发生在癌过程的早期阶段。     

5-氮-2'-脱氧胞嘧啶对U266细胞系P16基因去甲基化作用研究

  目的 探讨5-氮-2'-脱氧胞嘧啶（5-Aza-CdR）诱导骨髓瘤细胞系U266 p16基因 DNA 5′CpG岛去甲基化作用及对U266细胞增生的影响。方法 采用巢式甲基特异性PCR法（n-MSP）、DNA序列分析、RT-PCR、细胞生长曲线、流式细胞仪DNA含量分析法检测5-Aza-CdR对U266细胞 p16基因去甲基化作用及其对U266细胞的生长、增生及细胞周期的影响。结果 （1）5-Aza-CdR能够逆转U266细胞 p16 基因异常甲基化；（2）5-Aza-CdR能激活p16基因沉默的再转录；（3）5-Aza-CdR能下调U266细胞甲基转移酶DNMT1、DNMT3A、DNMT3B 的表达并呈浓度依赖性；（4）5-Aza-CdR作用的U266细胞被阻滞于G0 ~ G1期。结论 5-Aza-CdR可能通过抑制甲基转移酶直接对p16 基因去甲基化，逆转U266 细胞DNA 异常甲基化，并有效地激活因高甲基化所致p16基因沉默的再转录     

正反义人DNA(5-胞嘧啶)甲基转移酶基因片段真核表达载体的构建

DNA(5-胞嘧啶)甲基转移酶[DNA (Cytosine-5)-methyltransferase,DNMT]以组织特异的方式识别、催化和调节半甲基化的DNA子链胞嘧啶残基,并维持DNA甲基化模式[1].异常的DNA甲基化方式与人的某些肿瘤和发育异常有关[2～6].为探讨反义DNA片段对肝癌细胞株的阻抑作用,并阐明与恶性表型有关的癌相关基因转录和DNA甲基化水平的关系,我们采用PCR克隆技术进行构建DNMT正、反义基因片段真核表达载体的研究,现介绍如下.     

DNA甲基转移酶在妇科肿瘤中的研究进展

大量研究表明，许多种类的肿瘤细胞都有异常的DNA甲基化行为，抑癌基因常常被过量地甲基化而失去活性，而基因的DNA序列并不发生改变。DNA甲基化是由DNA甲基转移酶（DNMT）催化并维持的。DNMT通过调节细胞内甲基化过程而参与肿瘤的发生与发展，在有5′端调控区胞嘧啶．鸟嘌呤（CpG）岛甲基化异常参与的肿瘤细胞中常表现为过度表达，其活性增高是肿瘤细胞具有特征的早期分子改变。     

DNA甲基化与食管癌的关系

肿瘤细胞普遍存在DNA甲基化模式的改变，DNA甲基化异常包括原癌基因低甲基化和抑癌基因高甲基化。近年来研究结果表明，在食管癌发生过程中同样存在相关抑癌基因启动子区甲基化导致的基因表达的紊乱。其中由DNA甲基转移酶（DNA methyltransferase，DNMT）和去甲基化酶的活性改变导致的抑癌基因CpG岛超甲基化的研究，已成为食管癌发病机制研究中的热点之一。综述DNA甲基化的特点及其抑制基因转录和表达的分子生物学机制；DNA异常甲基化与食管癌发生发展的关系；食管癌相关肿瘤抑制基因的甲基化谱构成了食管癌独特的表遗传学标志；目前常用的甲基化检测手段及各方法的优缺点；DNA甲基化和去甲基化研究的展望及所需要解决的的问题等。     

大肠癌与DNA-甲基转移酶

已知DNA甲基化的增加，与人类大肠癌和其他痛的发生有关。增加的甲基出通过对重要基因的抑制从而促进肿瘤的发展。人们还知道当大肠癌发展时，组成DNA甲基转移酶的信使核糖核酸（mRNA）的水平也增加；这种转移酶在抱啼陡阅酸鸟瞟吟部位催化DNA的甲基比过程。至今还来阐明的是DNA一甲基转移酶（DNA－MTase）mRNA水平的上升是否与细胞酶活fir升有关。据（JournaoftheNation－al。ancerInstitute）1993年第85卷第15期报道，美国JohnsHoPkins大学的Issa教授等，为了探讨上一问题曾进行了如下研究。他们从正常人和大肠癌患者或有家族…     

DNA甲基转移酶在肿瘤发病机制中的研究进展北大核心CSCD

0引言 与经典的遗传学不同,表观遗传学是指在DNA序列未发生异常改变的前提下,基因的功能发生了叮遗传的信息变化,并最终导致了表型的改变。DNA甲基化是表观遗传学修饰的主要形式之一,而DNA甲基转移酶（DNA methyltransferase,DNMT）则是DNA甲基化的主要调节酶。本文就DNMT在肿瘤中的研究进展作一综述。     

DNA methyltransferase expression and DNA hypermethylation in human hepatocellular carcinoma

Aberrant DNA methylation and increased expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) are features of tumor cells. To investigate roles for DNMTs during hepatocarcinogenesis, we examined DNMT expression at both the mRNA and protein level in hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) and paired non-neoplastic liver tissues, along with measuring the DNA methylation status of five tumor suppressor genes. Expression of DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b mRNA was detected in 33.3, 59.3, and 55.6% of HCCs and 40.7, 22.2, and 0% of non-neoplastic liver tissues, respectively. DNMT1 and DNMT3a were immunoreactive in 100 and 48% of HCCs and 52 and 0% of non-neoplastic liver tissues. The DNMT3a mRNA expression profile showed significant correlation with its immunoreactivity (P=0.022). DNA methylation status of five tumor suppressor genes, HIC-1, p16, RASSF1A, p53, and RB1 was detected in 85.2, 48.1, 44.4, 22.2, and 0% of HCCs, respectively. There was no significant correlation between DNMT mRNA expression and DNA methylation (P>0.05). DNMT immunoreactivity was also not associated with DNA methylation except HIC-1 (P=0.036) and p53 methylation (P=0.009). Despite the lack of correlation between DNA methylation status and DNMT expression, the frequency of hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes remained relatively high in HCCs, suggesting that regional DNA hypermethylation is involved in hepatocarcinogenesis and that there may be other mechanisms for increasing DNA methylation.     

Decrease of DNA methyltransferase 1 expression relative to cell proliferation in transitional cell carcinoma

In many common cancers such as transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), specific genes are hypermethylated, whereas overall DNA methylation is diminished. Genome-wide DNA hypomethylation mostly affects repetitive sequences such as LINE-1 retrotransposons. Methylation of these sequences depends on adequate expression of DNA methyltransferase I (DNMT1) during DNA replication. Therefore, DNMT1 expression relative to proliferation was investigated in TCC cell lines and tissue as well as in renal carcinoma (RCC) cell lines, which also display hypomethylation, as indicated by decreased LINE-1 methylation. Cultured normal uroepithelial cells or normal bladder tissue served as controls. In all tumor cell lines, DNMT1 mRNA as well as protein was decreased relative to the DNA replication factor PCNA, and DNA hypomethylation was present. However, the extents of hypomethylation and DNMT1 downregulation did not correlate. Reporter gene assays showed that the differences in DNMT1 expression between normal and tumor cells were not established at the level of DNMT1 promoter regulation. Diminished DNMT1:PCNA mRNA ratios were also found in 28/45 TCC tissues but did not correlate with the extent of DNA hypomethylation. In addition, expression of the presumed de novo methyltransferases DNMT3A and DNMT3B mRNAs was investigated. DNMT3B overexpression was observed in about half of all high-stage TCC (DNMT3B vs. tumor stage, chi(2): p = 0.03), whereas overexpression of DNMT3A was rarer and less pronounced. Expression of DNMT3A and DNMT3B in most RCC lines was higher than in TCC lines. Our data indicate that DNMT1 expression does not increase adequately with cell proliferation in bladder cancer. This relative downregulation probably contributes to hypomethylation of repetitive DNA but does not determine its extent alone.     

Effects of specific DNMT gene depletion on cancer cell transformation and breast cancer cell invasion; toward selective DNMT inhibitors

A hallmark of cancer is aberrant DNA methylation, consisting of global hypomethylation and regional hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors have been recognized as promising candidate anticancer drugs. Drug development has focused on DNA methylation inhibitors with the goal of activating tumor suppressor genes silenced by DNA methylation. 5-azacytidine (5-AC; Vidaza), a global DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, was Food and Drug Administration approved to treat myelodysplastic syndromes and is clinically tested for solid tumors. In this paper, it was demonstrated that 5'-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-azaCdR) activated both silenced tumor suppressor genes and pro-metastatic genes by demethylation, raising the concern that it would promote metastasis. 5-AzaCdR treatment increased the invasiveness of non-invasive breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 cells and ZR-75-1 and dramatically induced pro-metastatic genes; Urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), metastasis-associated gene (H-MTS1; S100A4) and C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4). The hypothesis that the blocking of cellular transformation activity of DNA methyltransferase inhibitor could be separated from the pro-metastatic activity was tested using short interfering RNA (siRNA) targeted to the different DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) genes. Although depletion of DNMT1 had the strongest effect on colony growth suppression in cellular transformation assays, it did not result in demethylation and activation of uPA, S100A4, MMP2 and CXCR4 in MCF-7 cells. Depletion of DNMT1 did not induce cellular invasion in MCF-7 and ZR-75-1 non-invasive breast cancer cell lines. These data have implications on the design of new DNA methyltransferase inhibitor and on the proper utilization of current inhibitors.     

Endogenous cytosine damage products alter the site selectivity of human DNA maintenance methyltransferase DNMT1

Alterations in cytosine methylation patterns are usually observed in human tumors. The consequences of altered cytosine methylation patterns include both inappropriate activation of transforming genes and silencing of tumor suppressor genes. Despite the biological effect of methylation changes, little is known about how such changes are caused. The heritability of cytosine methylation patterns from parent to progeny cells is attributed to the fidelity of the methylation-sensitive human maintenance methyltransferase DNMT1, which methylates with high specificity the unmethylated strand of a hemimethylated CpG sequence following DNA replication. We have been studying DNA damage that might alter the specificity of DNMT1, either inhibiting the methylation of hemimethylated sites or triggering the inappropriate methylation of previously unmethylated sites. Here, we show that known forms of endogenous DNA damage can cause either hypermethylation or hypomethylation. Inflammation-induced 5-halogenated cytosine damage products, including 5-chlorocytosine, mimic 5-methylcytosine and induce inappropriate DNMT1 methylation within a CpG sequence. In contrast, oxidation damage of the methyl group of 5-methylcytosine, with the formation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, prevents DNMT1 methylation of the target cytosine. We propose that reduced DNMT1 selectivity resulting from DNA damage could cause heritable changes in cytosine methylation patterns, resulting in human tumor formation. These data may provide a mechanistic link for the associations documented between inflammation and cancer.     

RNA interference-mediated knockdown of DNA methyltransferase 1 leads to promoter demethylation and gene re-expression in human lung and breast cancer cells

DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) is required to maintain DNA methylation patterns in mammalian cells, and is thought to be the predominant maintenance methyltransferase gene. Recent studies indicate that inhibiting DNMT1 protein expression may be a useful approach for understanding the role of DNA methylation in tumorigenesis. To this end, we used RNA interference to specifically down-regulate DNMT1 protein expression in NCI-H1299 lung cancer and HCC1954 breast cancer cells. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of DNMT1 protein expression resulted in >80% reduction of promoter methylation in RASSF1A, p16(ink4A), and CDH1 in NCI-H1299; and RASSF1A, p16(ink4A), and HPP1 in HCC1954; and re-expression of p16(ink4A), CDH1, RASSF1A, and SEMA3B in NCI-H1299; and p16(ink4A), RASSF1A, and HPP1 in HCC1954. By contrast, promoter methylation and lack of gene expression was maintained when these cell lines were treated with control small interfering RNAs. The small interfering RNA treatment was stopped and 17 days later, all of the sequences showed promoter methylation and gene expression was again dramatically down-regulated, indicating the tumor cells still were programmed for these epigenetic changes. We saw no effects on soft agar colony formation of H1299 cells 14 days after DNMT1 knockdown indicating that either these genes are not functioning as tumor suppressors under these conditions, or that more prolonged knockdown or other factors are also required to inhibit the malignant phenotype. These results provide direct evidence that loss of DNMT1 expression abrogates tumor-associated promoter methylation and the resultant silencing of multiple genes implicated in the pathogenesis of human lung and breast cancer.     

Preferential response of cancer cells to zebularine

The frequent silencing of tumor suppressor genes by altered cytosine methylation and chromatin structural changes makes this process an attractive target for epigenetic therapy. Here we show that zebularine, a stable DNA cytosine methylation inhibitor, is preferentially incorporated into DNA and exhibits greater cell growth inhibition and gene expression in cancer cell lines compared to normal fibroblasts. In addition, zebularine preferentially depleted DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and induced expression of cancer-related antigen genes in cancer cells relative to normal fibroblasts. Our results demonstrate that zebularine can be selective toward cancer cells and may hold clinical promise as an anticancer therapy.     

Decreased DNA methylation in acute myeloid leukemia patients with DNMT3A mutations and prognostic implications of DNA methylation

We examined 79 acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients for DNA methylation of 12 tumor suppressor genes (TSG) and 24 homeobox domain (Hox) genes, and additionally for mutations in DNMT3A gene. We observed lower levels of DNA methylation (P<0.0001) as well as smaller numbers of concurrently hypermethylated genes (P<0.0001) in patients with DNMT3A mutations. Our study of the impact of DNA methylation on prognosis in intermediate and high risk AML patients revealed a relation between higher DNA methylation and better patients' outcome. Lower DNA methylation was linked with higher relapse rates and an inferior overall survival.     

DNA methylation status of hMLH1, p16(INK4a), and CDH1 is not associated with mRNA expression levels of DNA methyltransferase and DNA demethylase in gastric carcinomas

DNA methyltransferase and DNA demethylase are enzymes potentially affecting promoter methylation status. We examined levels of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b) and DNA demethylase (MBD2) mRNA expression by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. In addition, we examined promoter methylation status of hMLH1, p16(INK4a), and CDH1 by methylation-specific PCR since all three of these genes are reported to be hypermethylated in gastric carcinoma. MBD2 appeared to be down-regulated in neoplasms. The levels of DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b, and MBD2 mRNA expression were not associated with either tumor stage or histologic type. Promoter hypermethylation of hMLH1, p16(INK4a), and CDH1 was detected in 5/20 (25%), 8/20 (40%) and 8/20 (40%) of gastric carcinomas, respectively. There was no clear relation between DNA methylation status of hMLH1, p16(INK4a), and CDH1 and the mRNA expression levels of DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b or MBD2. We divided the examined cases into two groups according to the number of hypermethylated genes. Cases with more than two hypermethylated genes comprised a hypermethylation group, and cases with no hypermethylation comprised a non-hypermethylation group. We found no group association for levels of DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b, and MBD2 mRNA expression. Our results suggest that the mRNA expression levels for pro-methylating (DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b) and anti-methylating (MBD2) enzymes is not a critical determinate of tumor-specific promoter hypermethylation of hMLH1, p(16INK4a), or CDH1 in gastric carcinoma.