零回波时间3.0T MRI用于检出肺癌结节

目的 观察零回波时间(ZTE)3.0T MRI检出肺癌结节的价值。方法 前瞻性纳入126例肺癌患者(共176个肺结节),以3.0T MR仪行肺部轴位ZTE成像和常规序列成像,包括T1容积内插屏气检查(VIBE)、T2刀锋序列(BLADE)及T2半傅里叶采集单次激发快速自旋回波(HASTE)序列扫描;分析ZTE MRI与CT显示肺结节特征的一致性,观察以不同MR序列检出肺结节的敏感度。结果 176个肺结节中,ZTE MRI检出140个、漏诊36个。ZTE MRI与CT显示肺结节最大径及其实性部分最大径的一致性均好(ICC=0.954、0.943,P均<0.001)且差异较小,显示气管血管束、胸膜凹陷及内部支气管充气征的一致性均好(Kappa=0.894、0.912、0.917),显示结节类型及形状的一致性中等(Kappa=0.661、0.501)。ZTE MRI检出肺结节的敏感度均高于其他单独MR序列(P均<0.05);ZTE与T2-BLADE组合的敏感度均高于其他序列组合(P均<0.05)。结论 ZTE 3.0T MRI检出肺癌结节的效能较好,优于常规MR序列;与T2-BLADE联合可进一步提高其敏感度。     

零回波时间动脉自旋标记MR血管成像评估颅内动脉瘤

目的 观察零回波时间(ZTE)动脉自旋标记(ASL)MR血管成像(MRA)评估颅内动脉瘤(IA)的价值。方法 对18例临床疑诊IA患者行头颈部时间飞跃法(TOF)MRA(TOF-MRA)及ZTE ASL-MRA,并于之后2天内行头颈部数字减影血管造影(DSA);评价2种MRA图像显示IA质量(优、良、中等或差)及IA定量参数(瘤高、瘤宽及瘤颈),比较其图像质量评分差异;以DSA结果为金标准,采用组内相关系数(ICC)观察3种检查所获IA定量参数的一致性。结果 18例共21个IA纳入研究。ZTE ASL-MRA显示IA图像质量评分[4(4,4)]高于TOF-MRA[4(3,4),Z=－2.40,P=0.02]。ZTE ASL-MRA(ICC=0.99、0.98、0.99)及TOF-MRA(ICC=0.96、0.96、0.93)所示IA瘤高、瘤宽及瘤颈与DSA结果的一致性均强(P均<0.05)。结论 ZTE ASL-MRA可用于无创、定量评估IA。     

下肢能谱CT静脉成像最佳重建能级和自适应统计迭代重建权重

目的 探讨下肢能谱CT静脉成像(CTV)最佳重建能级和自适应统计迭代重建(ASIR-V)权重。方法 收集82例接受下肢CTV的疑诊下肢深静脉血栓(DVT)患者,根据扫描模式分为常规120 kVp组(A组,n=42)和能谱扫描组(B组,n=40);将A组CTV图像重建为40% ASIR-V图像,将B组图像分别重建为40、50、60及70 keV结合40%、60%及80% ASIR-V图像。针对所获13种图像,比较下腔静脉、股静脉及腘静脉CT值、噪声(SD)、信噪比(SNR)及对比度噪声比(CNR),并对静脉和血栓显示情况进行主观评估。结果 13种图像之间,各静脉CT值、SD、SNR及CNR差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.001)。B组12种图像中,ASIR-V权重一致时,随keV能级增加,各静脉CT值、SD、SNR及CNR均降低;keV能级水平一致时,随ASIR-V权重增加,SD减小、SNR和CNR增加。B组40、50、60 keV图像中的各静脉CT值均高于A组(P均<0.05);40、50、60、70 keV结合60%、80% ASIR-V图像中,除70 keV结合60% ASIR-V图像外,其余图像各静脉SNR和CNR均高于A组(P均<0.05)。13种图像中,50 keV结合40%、60%、80% ASIR-V图像显示静脉主观评分最高(P均<0.05);50 keV结合60% ASIR-V图像显示DVT清晰度≥4分者占比最高。结论 50 keV结合60% ASIR-V为能谱下肢CTV成像最佳重建方法。     

对比人工与人工智能图像后处理冠状动脉CT血管造影显示冠状动脉解剖及其病变

目的 对比人工与人工智能(AI)后处理用于冠状动脉CT血管造影(CCTA)显示冠状动脉解剖及病变的效能。方法 回顾性分析158例疑诊冠心病患者的CCTA资料,分别以人工(人工组,含1名负责图像后处理的影像科主任医师和2名负责分析图像的影像科主治医师)及深睿、数坤AI软件(记为A₁组、A₂组)行后处理,于容积再现(VR)图像中测量冠状动脉分支数目,于曲面重组(CPR)图像中测量左前降支(LAD)、左回旋支(LCX)及右冠状动脉(RCA)管腔拉直长度;观察LAD(近、中、远段)、LCX(近、中远段)、RCA(近、中、远段)有无管腔狭窄及其程度、有无斑块及其性质,分析3组评估结果的差异及一致性。结果 3组所示冠状动脉分支数总体差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01),A₁组、A₂组所示数目均多于人工组(P=0.04、＜0.01)。A₁组(P=0.04、0.03)、A₂组(P均＜0.01)所测LAD和RCA长度均大于人工组,其余组间LAD和RCA长度差异均无统计学意义(P均＞0.05)。3组所测LCX长度(P=0.18)及评估LAD、LCX及RCA狭窄程度及斑块性质结果差异均无统计学意义(P均＞0.05)。A₁组、A₂组评估LAD、LCX、RCA狭窄程度(Kappa=0.58、0.51、0.57),以及A₁组(Kappa=0.55、0.57、0.62)、A₂组(Kappa=0.56、0.58、0.67)与人工组评估结果的一致性均为一般。结论 CCTA图像经AI后处理后显示冠状动脉分支较人工后处理更为完整;人工与AI后处理评估冠状动脉狭窄程度及钙化结果的一致性均不高。     

3D弥散法MR膝关节造影对半月板损伤诊断价值的探讨

目的:探讨3D弥散法MR膝关节造影诊断半月板撕裂的临床应用价值。方法: 收集自2013年1月至2014年1月的42例临床怀疑半月板撕裂的患者,其中男31例,女11例;年龄21～67岁,平均38.4岁;病程2 h～15 d;临床症状是膝关节痛。首先采用膝关节常规MR平扫,然后进行3D弥散法MR膝关节造影检查,全部病例经关节镜或手术证实,将常规平扫结果和3D弥散法关节造影诊断结果与关节镜或手术结果对照,对比两种方法在显示半月板撕裂图像敏感性和特异性方面的差异。结果:3D弥散法MR膝关节造影使半月板撕裂处信号强度明显高于常规平扫,同时检查的敏感性从52.94%(54/102)提高到85.79%(87/102),特异性从67.78%(61/90)提高到86.67%(78/90).对两种方法进行χ²检验,敏感性及特异性之间差异有统计学意义(χ²=25.90,P<0.01; χ²=9.13,P<0.01).结论:3D弥散法膝关节造影对半月板撕裂图像敏感性及特异性均优于常规MR平扫。     

低剂量CT引导下Hookwire穿刺定位体质量指数 ≤ 22 kg/m2患者肺结节

目的 观察低剂量CT引导下Hookwire穿刺用于定位体质量指数(BMI) ≤ 22 kg/m²患者肺结节的可行性。方法 前瞻性招募53例BMI ≤ 22 kg/m²的肺结节患者(共66枚肺结节)行CT引导下Hookwire穿刺定位,根据CT剂量分为常规剂量组(A组,25例32枚肺结节)及低辐射剂量组(B组,28例34枚肺结节),以B组此前常规剂量CT图像为其对照组(C组)。采用5分制对A、B组CT图像质量进行评分,以3分制评价B、C组图像显示肺结节状态。比较A、B组患者一般资料、肺结节位置、类型、CT值、最大径、图像质量评分、穿刺次数、并发症、容积CT剂量指数(CTDIvol)、剂量长度乘积(DLP)及有效剂量(ED)等,比较B、C组图像显示肺结节评分、结节最大径及CT值。结果A、B组患者一般资料、肺结节位置、类型、CT值、最大径、穿刺次数及并发症差异均无统计学意义(P均>0.05)。B组图像质量评分[4(3,4)]低于A组[5(4,5)](P<0.05)但均 ≥ 3分,可满足穿刺定位需求。B组CTDIvol、DLP和ED均低于A组(P均<0.05)。B、C组图像显示肺结节评分、结节最大径、CT值差异均无统计学意义(P均>0.05)。结论 低剂量CT引导下Hookwire穿刺可用于定位BMI ≤ 22 kg/m²患者肺结节。     

三维颅脑容积成像增强MRI用于病因学诊断动眼神经麻痹

目的 观察三维颅脑容积成像(3D-BRAVO)增强MR用于病因学诊断动眼神经麻痹(ONP)的价值。方法 回顾性分析27例临床诊断为单侧ONP患者的颅脑T1-液体衰减反转恢复(T1-FLAIR)增强及3D-BRAVO增强图像,对比其病因学诊断ONP结果的差异。结果 27例ONP病因包括肿瘤或肿瘤样病变压迫或浸润13例、血管压迫7例、颅脑炎性病变4例及颅脑外伤3例。T1-FLAIR增强图像显示ONP病因包括肿瘤压迫或侵犯10例、血管压迫3例、颅脑炎性病变2例、颅脑外伤3例,正确率66.67%(18/27);3D-BRAVO增强图像显示病因正确率为100%(27/27),二者差异均有统计学意义(P=0.002)。结论 3D-BRAVO增强MRI用于病因学诊断ONP具有高度价值。     

运动伪影校正技术改善肾动脉瘤锥形束CT图像质量

目的 观察运动伪影校正技术（MFT）对于改善肾动脉瘤锥形束CT（CBCT）图像质量的价值。方法 前瞻性选取20例拟接受经导管动脉栓塞治疗的肾动脉瘤患者,于CBCT引导下行肾动脉造影,采用MFT处理运动伪影;对MFT校正前、后图像质量进行主、客观评价,评估其显示肾动脉、载瘤动脉及靶区血管树情况,测算单位密度像素平均值（mean）、标准差（SD）及血管边缘锐化误差率。结果 MFT校正后,肾动脉瘤最大密度投影图像显示肾动脉、重建CBCT图像显示载瘤动脉均明显优于校正前（P均＜0.05）;利用Flightplan for Liver软件可自动提取清晰的血管树;肾动脉瘤CBCT图像SD及血管边缘锐化误差率明显减小而mean明显增加（P均＜0.05）。结论 MFT可有效改善肾动脉瘤CBCT图像质量。     

ARCO 2-4期股骨头坏死MR征象对Harris评分影响分析

目的:分析并确定ARCO 2-4期股骨头坏死(osteonecrosis of femoral head,ONFH)对Harris评分有影响意义的MR征象。方法:回顾性分析2019年1月至2020年6月34例行常规MR、T2 mapping、3D-SPACE序列检查及Harris评分的ARCO 2-4期ONFH患者,排除3例,最终纳入31例,男23例,女8例,年龄18~62(40.0±10.8)岁;其中21例为双侧ONFH,共计52个ONFH,ARCO 2期17个,ARCO 3期24个,ARCO 4期11个。在医院数字影像信息系统(picture archiving and communication system,PACS)对MR影像征象(股骨头塌陷深度、ONFH指数、骨髓水肿、股骨头骨质增生、软骨损伤分级、软骨T2值及关节积液)进行评估及测量,在Siemens后处理工作站计算软骨定量参数T2值并测量。采用Pearson相关分析评估MR各征象与Harris评分的相关性,采用多重线性回归分析评估与Harris评分有相关性的MR征象对Harris评分的影响。结果:Pearson 相关分析显示股骨头塌陷深度(r=-0.563,P=0.000)、软骨损伤分级(r=-0.500,P=0.000)及关节积液(r=-0.535,P=0.000)与Harris评分呈负相关。多重线性回归分析显示关节积液(β=-6.198,P=0.001)、股骨头塌陷深度(β=-4.085,P=0.014)对Harris评分呈负相关。结论:关节积液、股骨头塌陷深度对Harris评分有显著的负向影响关系,建议影像医师常规对股骨头塌陷深度、关节积液进行定量及等级评估,以高效精准地辅助临床诊疗。     

心脏MR组织追踪技术定量评估心肌淀粉样变性患者心肌应变

目的 观察利用心脏MR组织追踪（CMR-TT）技术定量评估心肌淀粉样变性（CA）患者心肌应变的可行性。方法 对20例免疫球蛋白轻链型心肌淀粉样变性（AL-CA,A组）、20例转甲状腺素蛋白型CA（ATTR-CA,B组）患者及20名健康受试者（C组）采集心脏MRI,以CMR-TT技术获得心肌应变参数;比较3组间左心室心功能参数差异,以及左心室各节段及整体心肌应变参数的差异,包括3D纵向应变（LS）、3D径向应变（RS）及3D圆周应变（CS）。结果 A、B组左心室心功能参数与C组差异均有统计学意义（P均<0.01）,而A与B组间左心室心功能参数差异均无统计学意义（P均>0.05）。除心尖段RS（P=0.81）外,A、B组应变参数均低于C组（P均<0.01）,而A与B组间应变参数差异均无统计学意义（P均>0.05）。结论 CMR-TT技术可用于定量评估CA患者左心室心肌应变。     

Histochemical and contractile properties of striated muscles of urethra and levator ani of dogs and sheep

AIMS: To understand their possible importance in long- and short-term control of continence, some properties of the striated muscles of the urethra and pelvic floor (levator ani) of dogs and sheep were investigated, especially fiber types and contractile characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Striated muscles of urethra and levator ani of 29 male and 6 female dogs and 11 male and 6 female sheep were removed and cut into strips. Some strips were frozen and stained for ATPase at pH 9.4 and 4.3 for fiber typing; others were set up in an organ bath to study contractile responses to nerve stimulation. RESULTS: All muscles contained both type I (slow) and type II fibers, ranging from 97% type II in female greyhound urethra to 60% in female sheep levator ani. For each muscle, there were fewer type II muscles in sheep than in dog. The diameters of the urethral fibers were about 60% of the levator ani in dogs and 34% in sheep. Contraction of the urethral muscle was faster than for levator ani and declined to about 80% of the peak, 500 msec after the beginning of stimulation at 20 Hz. The levator ani contraction rose to a steady level as long as stimulation continued. CONCLUSIONS: Both the levator ani and urethral striated muscles contain slow and fast fiber types. The levator ani muscles are capable of sustained contraction with rapid onset which will produce long-term closure of the urethra. The circular urethral muscle contraction was faster but less well maintained.     

Incorporation and release of85Sr and14C-proline-hydroxyproline in mineral and collagen of bone and incisor teeth of growing rats

The extent to which exchange and reutilization processes of mineral tracers affect skeletal mineral accretion and resorption measurements was evaluated by comparing the rates of appearance and disappearance of⁸⁵Sr and¹⁴C-proline-hydroxyproline in bones and teeth in growing rats for 12 days following simultaneous parenteral injection of these tracers. Expressions for the relative rates of collagen synthesis and breakdown, which unlike mineral metabolism are considered not to be complicated by exchange phenomena, were based on¹⁴C-proline conversion to¹⁴C-hydroxyproline; the specific activity of the latter was determined. Both the mineral and the collagen specific activities reflected the rates and patterns of growth of the samples assayed; rapid growth and a short interval of time between formation and resorption of tissue in themetaphyseal bone which contains the cartilagineous growth plate, slow growth and an interval of time between formation and resorption of tissue indiaphyseal bone and incisor teeth which is longer than the 12 days of the experiment. However, in metaphyseal bone the specific activity collagen/mineral ratio dropped by one half during the 4–12 day interval in contrast to diaphyseal bone and incisor teeth in which no change in this ratio was observed during this period of time. The data indicate that collagen in the metaphyseal growth zone is removed by resorption before it has become fully mineralized, and that exchange is a relatively unimportant factor in the long term kinetics of bone mineral.

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Zusammenfassung Das Ausmaß, bis zu welchem Austausch- und Wiederverwendungsprozesse der mineralen Tracer die Messungen des mineralen Skelett-Auf- und Abbaues beeinflussen können, wurde ausgewertet; zu diesem Zweck wurde die Geschwindigkeit des Auftretens und Verschwindens von⁸⁵Sr und von¹⁴C-Prolin-Hydroxyprolin in Knochen und Zähnen von wachsenden Ratten während der 12 auf die simultane parenterale Injektion dieser Tracer folgenden Tage verglichen.Der Ausdruck für die relative Geschwindigkeit des Kollagen-Auf- und Abbaues, bei welchem im Gegensatz zum Mineralmetabolismus kein Mitwirken des Austauschphänomens vermutet wird, basiert auf der Umwandlung von¹⁴C-Prolin zu¹⁴C-Hydroxyprolin; die spezifische Aktivität des letzteren wurde bestimmt.Aus der spezifischen Aktivität des Minerals sowie jener des Kollagens konnten die Geschwindigkeit und die Art des Wachstums der untersuchten Proben ersehen werden, d.h.schnelles Wachstum und ein kurzes Zeitintervall zwischen Bildung und Resorption des Gewebes imKnochen der Metaphyse, die auch die knorpelige Wachstumsplatte enthält, und andererseitslangsames Wachstum und längeres Zeitintervall (länger als die 12 Tage des Experimentes) zwischen Bildung und Resorption des Gewebes imKnochen der Diaphyse und in den Schneidezähnen. Immerhin fiel die spezifische Aktivität des Kollagen/Mineral-Anteils im Knochen der Metaphyse während dem 4–12tägigen Zeitintervall auf die Hälfte, im Gegensatz zum Knochen der Diaphyse und der Schneidezähne, bei welchen während dieser Zeitspanne kein Unterschied in diesem Verhältnis beobachtet wurde.Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, daß Kollagen in der Wachstumszone der Metaphyse durch Resorption verschwindet, bevor es ganz mineralisiert ist, und daß der Austausch ein relativ unwichtiger Faktor in der Kinetik auf lange Sicht des Knochenminerals ist.

     

Instrumented ligamentotaxis and stabilization of compression and burst fractures of dorsolumbar and mid-lumbar spines

Background:

Controversy continues regarding the best treatment for compression and burst fractures. The axial distraction reduction utilizing the technique employing the long straight rod or curved short rod without derotation to reduce fracture are practised together with short segment posterolateral fusion (PLF). Effects of the early postoperative mobilization without posterolateral fusion on reduction maintenance and fracture consolidation were not evaluated so far. The present prospective study is designed to assess the effectiveness of i) reduction and restoration of sagittal alignment, ii) no posterolateral fusion on the reduced, fractured vertebral body and injured disc, iii) fracture consolidation and iv) the fate of the unfused cephalad and caudal injured motion segments of the fractured vertebra.

Materials and Methods:

The study includes 15 Denis burst and two Denis type D compression fractures between T₁₂ and L₃. The lordotic distraction technique was used for ligamentotaxis utilizing the contoured short rods and pedicle screw fixator. Three vertebrae including the fractured one were fixed. The patients after surgery were braced for ten weeks with activity restriction for 2-4 weeks. The patients were evaluated for change in vertebral body height, sagittal curve, reduction of retropulsion, improvement in neural deficit. The unfused motion segments, residual postoperative pain and bone and metal failure were also evaluated.

Results:

The preoperative and postreduction percentile vertebral heights at, zero (immediate postoperative), at three, six and 12 months followup were 62.4, 94.8, 94.6, 94.5 and 94.5%, respectively. The percentages of the intracanal fragment retropulsion at preoperative, and postoperative at zero, 3, 6 and 12 months followup were 59.0, 36.2,, 36.0, 32.3, and 13.6% respectively.The preoperative and postreduction percentile loss of the canal dimension and at zero, three, six and 12 months were 52.1, 45.0, 44.0, 41.0 and 29% respectively suggesting that the under-reduced fragment was being resorbed gradually by a remodeling process. The mean initial kyphosis of 33° became mean 2° immediately after reduction and mean 3° at the final followup. The fractured vertebral bodies consolidated in an average period of ten weeks (range 8-14 weeks). The restored disc heights were relatively well maintained throughout the observation period. All paraparetic patients recovered neurologically. There were no postoperative complications.

Conclusion:

Instrument-aided ligamentotaxis for compression and burst fractures utilizing the short contoured rod derotation technique and the instrumented stabilization of the fractured spine are found to be effective procedures which contribute to the fractured vertebral body consolidation without recollapse and maintain the motion segment function.     

Principles and Practice of Hemofiltration and Hemodiafiltration

There is growing interest in the convective dialysis therapies, hemofiltration (HF) and hemodiafiltration (HDF). Both require dialysis membranes which are highly permeable to solutes as well as fluid, and in both cases large volumes of ultrafiltration are the condition for convective transport. In HDF the convection is combined with diffusion, and as a consequence, maximum clearance over the entire molecular weight spectrum is achieved. Optimal forms of HDF provide urea clearance 10–15% higher than the corresponding diffusive mode. The larger the solute, the greater is the impact of convection, and β₂-microglobulin (β₂m) levels may be up to 70% reduced. Traditional postdilution HF provides high clearance of medium sized and large molecules. Satisfactory clearance of small solutes requires blood flows in excess of 500 ml/min. With access to practically unlimited volumes of substitution solution through on-line ultrafiltration, predilution HF can now be used. This increases the clearance of small solutes to an acceptable range. For HDF as well as HF, large patient populations consistently treated for longer periods of time are needed to make valid outcome comparisons with other therapies.     

骨折不愈合与延迟愈合的成因与治疗

目的探讨骨折不愈合与延迟愈合的成因、报肯治疗的方法与设果。方法对1990年7月～2004年12月间收治的107例骨折不愈台、54例骨折延迟愈合2例先天性胫骨骨不连进行回顾性研究，分析原因，随访治疗结果。18例延迟愈合行保守治疗，本组其他145例行手术治疗，结果除2例先天性胫骨骨不连外，其余161例的成因中均有医源性因素。10例失去随访，153例平均随访17（6-28）个月，骨折均获骨性连接，愈合时间平均10（6-14）个月，肢体功能恢复良好，结论医源性技术缺陷是骨折不愈合与延迟愈合的主要原因，针对各种不同因素进行合理治疗可获得满意效果。     

Recognition and management of phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma

Phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGL) are catecholamine-secreting neuroendocrine tumours arising from the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla. These tumours may be identified incidentally, as part of a work-up for multiple endocrine neoplasia or following haemodynamic surges during unrelated procedures. Advances in perioperative management and improved management of intraoperative haemodynamic instability have significantly reduced surgical mortality from around 40% to less than 3%. Surgery is the definitive treatment in most cases and laparoscopic resection where possible is associated with improved outcomes. Anaesthetic management of PPGL cases represents a unique haemodynamic challenge both before and after tumour resection. In this article we describe the physiology of these tumours, their diagnosis, preoperative optimization methods, intraoperative anaesthetic management and management of postoperative complications.     

Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting are both very unpleasant experiences. The physiology is poorly understood; however, understanding what we do know is key to tailoring a preventative or therapeutic antiemetic regime. There are two key sites in the central nervous system implicated in the organization of the vomiting reflex: the vomiting centre and the chemoreceptor trigger zone. There are five key neurotransmitters involved in afferent feedback to these areas. These are histamine (H₁ receptors), dopamine (D₂), serotonin (5-HT₃), acetyl choline (muscarinic) and neurokinin (substance P). Postoperative nausea and vomiting will occur in around one-third of elective patients who have no prophylaxis. This can result in many detrimental effects including patient dissatisfaction, unplanned admission and prolonged recovery. It is therefore essential that clinicians understand how they can prevent and treat nausea and vomiting using either a single agent or a combination of antiemetics to target relevant receptors. Commonly used drugs include antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists and steroids. More novel agents are being developed such as aprepitant, a neurokinin receptor antagonist, palonosetron, a 5HT₃ receptor antagonist and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid.     

Physiology and pharmacology of nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting are both very unpleasant experiences. The physiology is poorly understood; however, understanding what we do know is key to tailoring a preventative or therapeutic antiemetic regime. There are two key sites in the central nervous system implicated in the organization of the vomiting reflex: the vomiting centre and the chemoreceptor trigger zone. There are five key neurotransmitters involved in afferent feedback to these areas. These are histamine (H₁ receptors), dopamine (D₂), serotonin (5-HT₃), acetyl choline (muscarinic) and neurokinin (substance P). Postoperative nausea and vomiting will occur in around one-third of elective patients who have no prophylaxis. This can result in many detrimental effects including patient dissatisfaction, unplanned admission and prolonged recovery. It is therefore essential that clinicians understand how they can prevent and treat nausea and vomiting using either a single agent or a combination of antiemetics to target relevant receptors. Commonly used drugs include antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, serotonin antagonists and steroids. More novel agents are being developed such as aprepitant, a neurokinin receptor antagonist, palonosetron, a 5HT₃ receptor antagonist, and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid.