Cardiac tamponade as a manifestation of tuberculosis

Tuberculosis has been increasing in incidence in recent years. Pericardial involvement and pericardial effusions are well-documented and may result in pericardial tamponade. Despite this, large pericardial effusions are uncommon, and manifestation as cardiac tamponade is rare. We report two cases of tuberculous pericarditis in which the initial feature was tamponade. Since the diagnosis of tuberculosis may be delayed due to the slow-growing nature of the bacterium, physicians need to be aware of this possibility and consider the use of modern diagnostic techniques that may permit an earlier diagnosis.     

Diagnosing tuberculous pericarditis

BACKGROUND: Definitive diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis requires isolation of the tubercle bacillus from pericardial fluid, but isolating the organism is often difficult. AIM: To improve diagnostic efficiency for tuberculous pericarditis, using available tests. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. METHODS: Consecutive patients (n = 233) presenting with pericardial effusions underwent a predetermined diagnostic work-up. This included (i) clinical examination; (ii) pericardial fluid tests: biochemistry, microbiology, cytology, differential white blood cell (WBC) count, gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), adenosine deaminase (ADA) levels, polymerase chain reaction testing for Mycobacterium tuberculosis; (iii) HIV; (iv) sputum smear and culture; (v) blood biochemistry; and (vi) differential WBC count. A model was developed using 'classification and regression tree' analysis. The cut-off for the total diagnostic index (DI) was optimized using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS: Fever, night sweats, weight loss, serum globulin (>40 g/l) and peripheral blood leukocyte count (<10 x 10(9)/l) were independently predictive. The derived prediction model had 86% sensitivity and 84% specificity when applied to the study population. Pericardial fluid IFN-gamma >or=50 pg/ml, concentration had 92% sensitivity, 100% specificity and a positive predictive value (PPV) of 100% for the diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis; pericardial fluid ADA >or=40 U/l had 87% sensitivity and 89% specificity. A diagnostic model including pericardial ADA, lymphocyte/neutrophil ratio, peripheral leukocyte count and HIV status had 96% sensitivity and 97% specificity; substituting pericardial IFN-gamma for ADA yielded 98% sensitivity and 100% specificity. DISCUSSION: Basic clinical and laboratory features can aid the diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis. If available, pericardial IFN-gamma is the most useful diagnostic test. Otherwise we propose a prediction model that incorporates pericardial ADA and differential WBC counts.     

A simple method for continuous pericardial drainage

Needle pericardiocentesis is performed routinely for relief of symptoms in patients with pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade. In many patients however, reaccumulation of fluid requires further aspiration or surgical drainage, occasionally as a matter of urgency. Both procedures carry significant risks which may be avoided by insertion of an indwelling catheter. The Viggo subclavian cannula proves ideal for prolonged drainage of pericardial effusions and for relief of tamponade in an emergency situation. Introduction into the pericardium is simple, safe, and can be performed quickly without specialised equipment. This procedure is described and illustrated in patients with tuberculous and rheumatoid pericarditis.     

Current opinion on the features of pleural effusions with various genesis

Clinical features of not high-specific pleural effusions (PE) with various aetiology are considered. Based on state-of-the-art laboratory-instrumental methods some clinicalfeatures established: parapneumonic PE were characterized by acute onset, tuberculous PE more frequently had cubacute course, tumourous PE were characterized by gradual development with consequent symptoms.     

Contemporary management of pericardial effusion: practical aspects for clinical practice

A pericardial effusion (PE) is a relatively common finding in clinical practice. It may be either isolated or associated with pericarditis with or without an underlying disease. The aetiology is varied and may be either infectious (especially tuberculosis as the most common cause in developing countries) or non-infectious (cancer, systemic inflammatory diseases). The management is essentially guided by the hemodynamic effect (presence or absence of cardiac tamponade), the presence of concomitant pericarditis or underlying disease, and its size and duration. The present paper reviews the current knowledge on the aetiology, classification, diagnosis, management, therapy, and prognosis of PE in clinical practice.     

Serodiagnosis of pericardial tuberculosis

The AIDS epidemic has led to the resurgence of tuberculosis.Extrapulmonary manifestations may appear in over half of thepatients who are dually infected. This has resulted in a risingincidence of tuberculous pericarditis in several parts of Africasuch as Tanzania. We tested a solid-phase antibody competitionsandwich ELISA (SACT-SE) as a potential means of diagnosingtuberculous pericarditis. Fifty-one African patients with clinicallydiagnosed tuberculous pericardial effusion (of whom 25 had confirmationby pericardial fluid culture) were tested using a monoclonalantibody (CDC/WHO ref. no. IT39) which was raised against aspecific epitope on the Mycobacterium tuberculosis 30 kDa antigen.All but one patient had negative sputum microscopy for acid-fastbacilli. A sensitivity of 61 %(at 96%specificity) was achieved.Sera from 25 African patients with smear-positive tuberculosiswere also examined; of which 20 tested positive (sensitivity80%). This is the largest study to date on the potential applicationof serology in diagnosing pericardial tuberculosis.     

The postpericardiotomy syndrome as a cause of pleurisy in rehabilitation patients

Pleuritic chest pain in patients on a rehabilitation unit may be caused by several conditions. We report 2 cases of postpericardiotomy syndrome (PPS) as a cause of pleuritic pain. PPS occurs in 10% to 40% of patients who have coronary bypass or valve replacement surgery. The syndrome is characterized by fever, chest pain, and a pericardial or pleural friction rub. Its etiology is believed to be viral or immunologic. The syndrome can be a diagnostic challenge, and an increase in length of hospitalization because of it has been documented. Identified risk factors for PPS include age, use of prednisone, and a history of pericarditis. A higher incidence has been reported from May through July. Many patients undergo a battery of expensive procedures before PPS is diagnosed. The pain is sharp, associated with deep inspiration, and changes with position. Pleural effusions may be present and tend to occur bilaterally. Pericardial effusions are a documented complication. A pericardial or pleural rub may be present and is often transient. Serial auscultation is important. Laboratory work provides clues with a mild leukocytosis and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate. However, this does not provide the definitive diagnosis. Cardiac enzymes are not reliably related to the syndrome. An electrocardiogram will show changes similar to those associated with pericarditis. The patient may have a fever, but it is rarely higher than 102.5 degrees F. Complications include pericardial effusions, arrhythmias, premature bypass graft closure, and cardiac tamponade. Treatment consists of a 10-day course of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.     

Incidence and Management of Hemopericardium: Impact of Changing Trends in Invasive Cardiology

Objective

As invasive cardiovascular care has become increasingly complex, cardiac perforation leading to hemopericardium is a progressively prevalent complication. We sought to assess the frequency, etiology, and outcomes of hemorrhagic pericardial effusions managed through a nonsurgical echo-guided percutaneous strategy.

Diagnostic issues in the clinical management of pericarditis

Aims: To review the current major diagnostic issues on the diagnosis of acute and recurrent pericarditis. Methods: To review the current available evidence, we performed a through search of several evidence‐based sources of information, including Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Clinical Evidence, Evidence‐based guidelines from National Guidelines Clearinghouse and a comprehensive Medline search with the MeSH terms ‘pericarditis’, ‘etiology’ and ‘diagnosis’. Results: The diagnosis of pericarditis is based on clinical criteria including symptoms, presence of specific physical findings (rubs), electrocardiographical changes and pericardial effusion. Although the aetiology may be varied, most cases are idiopathic or viral, even after an extensive diagnostic evaluation. In such cases, the course is often benign following anti‐inflammatory treatment, and management would be not affected by a more precise diagnostic evaluation. A triage of pericarditis can be safely performed on the basis of the clinical and echocardiographical presentation. Specific diagnostic tests are not warranted if no specific aetiologies are suspected on the basis of the epidemiological background, history and presentation. High‐risk features associated with specific aetiologies or complications include: fever > 38 °C, subacute onset, large pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade, lack of response to aspirin or a NSAID. Conclusions: A targeted diagnostic evaluation is warranted in acute and recurrent pericarditis, with a specific aetiological search to rule out tuberculous, purulent or neoplastic pericarditis, as well as pericarditis related to a systemic disease, in selected patients according to the epidemiological background, presentation and clinical suspicion.     

Adjuvant corticosteroids for tuberculous pericarditis: promising,but not proven

BACKGROUND: There is controversy regarding the effectiveness of corticosteroids in tuberculous pericarditis, particularly in patients who are immunocompromised by HIV. AIM: To determine the effectiveness of adjuvant corticosteroids in tuberculous pericarditis. DESIGN: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials. METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group trials register (June 2002), the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (Issue 2, 2002), MEDLINE (January 1966 to March 2003), EMBASE (1980 to May 2002), and the reference lists of existing reviews, for randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials of adjuvant corticosteroids in the treatment of suspected tuberculous pericarditis. We also contacted organizations and individuals working in the field. Two reviewers independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. We used meta-analysis with a fixed effects model to calculate the summary statistics, provided there was no statistically significant heterogeneity, and expressed results as relative risk. RESULTS: Four trials with a total of 469 participants met our criteria. Three (total n = 411) tested adjuvant steroids in participants with suspected tuberculous pericarditis in the pre-HIV era. Fewer participants died in the intervention group, but the potentially large reduction in mortality was not statistically significant (relative risk RR 0.65, 95%CI 0.36-1.16, n = 350; p = 0.14). One trial with 58 patients that enrolled HIV-positive individuals also showed a promising but non-significant trend on mortality (RR 0.50, 95%CI 0.19-1.28; p = 0.15). There was no significant beneficial effect of steroids on re-accumulation of pericardial effusion or progression to constrictive pericarditis. Patients with pericardial effusion were significantly more likely to be alive with no functional impairment at 2 years following treatment. However, the effect was not sustained in a sensitivity analysis that included patients who were lost to follow-up. DISCUSSION: Steroids could have large beneficial effects on mortality and morbidity in tuberculous pericarditis, but published trials are too small to be conclusive. Large placebo-controlled trials are required, and should include sufficient numbers of HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants, and an adequate adjuvant steroid dose.     

结核性脑膜炎/心包炎患者能使用激素吗？——1例14岁患者的循证治疗

目的肺及肺外结核患者是否能使用激素是目前颇有争议的临床问题，结合1例肺结核合并结核性心包炎和结核性脑膜炎患者的病情，用循证临床实践的方法，就是否使用激素进行床旁循证治疗。方法计算机检索Cochrane图书馆、OVID、MEDLINE、www．guideline．org，查找和评价高质量临床证据，并根据患者意愿为患者制定治疗方案。结果共纳入11个RCT，2个Cochrane系统评价，9个指南。证据表明：①糖皮质激素能降低结核性脑膜炎患者的死亡风险，也能降低神经系统功能缺损的风险；②泼尼松龙使结核性心包炎患者总体死亡率降低（P=0．044），同时使心包炎所致的死亡风险也显著降低（P=0．004）；③激素能否使肺结核患者获益仍有争议。结合患者病情和意愿，在抗痨治疗的基础上加用地塞米松等治疗7周后，患者脑脊液基本恢复正常，心包积液消失。结论对于结核性脑膜炎和结核性心包炎患者应常规使用糖皮质激素治疗，但如何选择糖皮质激素类药物以及治疗疗程仍未达成一致。     

Toxoplasma pericarditis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Large pericardial effusions are now a well-known complication of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, mainly caused by mycobacterial disease. However, other etiologies can be found. We report a case of toxoplasma pericarditis without other parasitic localizations. Pericarditis is a very uncommon clinical feature during toxoplasmosis. Its diagnosis is often difficult to establish, particularly in immunocompromised patients. Nevertheless, its possible evolution to constriction or tamponade requires its consideration. New methods of rapid tissue cultures may be helpful and allow early specific treatment.     

Clinical review: Intrapericardial fibrinolysis in management of purulent pericarditis

Purulent pericarditis (PP) is a potentially life-threatening disease. Reported mortality rates are between 20 and 30%. Constrictive pericarditis occurs over the course of PP in at least 3.5% of cases. The frequency of persistent PP (chronic or recurrent purulent pericardial effusion occurring despite drainage and adequate antibiotherapy) is unknown because this entity was not previously classified as a complication of PP. No consensus exists on the optimal management of PP. Nevertheless, the cornerstone of PP management is complete eradication of the focus of infection. In retrospective studies, compared to simple drainage, systematic pericardiectomy provided a prevention of constrictive pericarditis with better clinical outcome. Because of potential morbidity associated with pericardiectomy, intrapericardial fibrinolysis has been proposed as a less invasive method for prevention of persistent PP and constrictive pericarditis. Experimental data demonstrate that fibrin formation, which occurs during the first week of the disease, is an essential step in the evolution to constrictive pericarditis and persistent PP. We reviewed the literature using the MEDLINE database. We evaluated the clinical efficacy, outcome, and complications of pericardial fibrinolysis. Seventy-four cases of fibrinolysis in PP were analysed. Pericarditis of tuberculous origin were excluded. Among the 40 included cases, only two treated by late fibrinolysis encountered failure requiring pericardiectomy. No patient encountered clinical or echocardiographic features of constriction during follow-up. Only one serious complication was described. Despite the lack of definitive evidence, potential benefits of fibrinolysis as a less invasive alternative to surgery in the management of PP seem promising. Early consideration should be given to fibrinolysis in order to prevent both constrictive and persistent PP. Nevertheless, in case of failure of fibrinolysis, pericardiectomy remains the primary option for complete eradication of infection.     

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) levels in malignant and benign pericardial effusions

ObjectivesOsteoprotegerin (OPG) is a regulator of bone and vascular homeostasis and acts as a decoy receptor for proapoptotic TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL).Design and methodsWe assessed pericardial and serum levels of OPG and TRAIL in pericardial effusions (PE) of malignant (mPE, n = 24) or non-malignant (nPE, n = 34) origin, and in pericardial fluid (PF, n = 25) of coronary artery disease (CAD) patients by ELISA.ResultsOPG was at least 5fold higher in PE or PF compared to serum, with a significantly higher ratio of pericardial to serum OPG in patients with mPE or nPE compared to PF (mPE vs. PF, p = 0.011; nPE vs. PF, p < 0.001). TRAIL was only detectable in mPE and PF. Logistic regression analysis revealed that a high ratio of pericardial to serum OPG and high TRAIL in PE were the best variable combination to predict malignancy of PE.ConclusionsPericardial and systemic OPG or TRAIL are potential diagnostic tools to discriminate between malignant or benign PE.     

快速进展型结核性心包炎的临床治疗

目的探讨不同治疗方案对于快速进展为缩窄性心包炎的结核性心包炎（快速进展型结核性心包炎）治疗效果、并发症、死亡率、患者预后的影响,以期对结核性心包炎的治疗获得更好的效果。 方法回顾性分析2014年6月至2019年5月成都市第三人民医院心脏大血管外科对38例快速进展型结核性心包炎的治疗方式、外科手术干预时机、手术方式及疗效、并发症、死亡率和随访情况等,治疗方式包括药物治疗、心包穿刺引流术、心包开窗术、心包剥脱术等。同期观察对慢性缩窄性心包炎行外科手术治疗患者115例。 结果对于快速进展型结核性心包炎采用不同的治疗方案,随访1~5年。所有患者均采用抗结核药物治疗,其中单纯药物治疗5例,全部进展为缩窄性心包炎;早期行心包穿刺引流术12例,治愈1例,其余11例进展为慢性缩窄性心包炎;早期行心包开窗术10例,进展为慢性缩窄性心包炎1例,治愈9例;早期行心包剥脱术11例,无进展为慢性缩窄性心包炎病例。全组无围术期死亡病例。与同期行慢性缩窄性心包炎外科手术治疗患者相比,快速进展型结核性心包炎外科手术治疗患者低心排综合征发生率较低（4.8% vs 24.3%,P＜0.05）,患者心功能改善情况较好（100.0% vs 80.7%,P＜0.05）,术后5年随访生存率较高（100% vs 78%,P＜0.05）。 结论快速进展型结核性心包炎单纯采用药物治疗和心包穿刺术治疗,有很高比例的患者会进展为缩窄性心包炎,从而严重影响患者的预后。早期外科干预能显著降低快速进展型结核性心包炎进展为缩窄性心包炎的概率,从而改善患者总体预后,改善患者生存质量,减轻社会负担。     

MR imaging findings in 76 consecutive surgically proven cases of pericardial disease with CT and pathologic correlation

To describe findings of patients with surgically confirmed pericardial disease on state of the art MR sequences. Retrospective review was performed for patients who underwent pericardiectomy and preoperative MR over a 5 year period ending in 2009. Patients' records were reviewed to confirm the diagnosis of chronic recurrent pericarditis, constrictive pericarditis, or pericardial tumor. MR imaging findings of pericardial thickness, IVC diameter, presence or absence of pericardial or pleural effusion, pericardial edema, pericardial enhancement, and septal "bounce" were recorded. Patients with constriction had a larger IVC diameter (3.1 ± 0.4 cm) than patients with recurrent pain and no constriction (2.0 ± 0.4 cm). Mean pericardial thickness for the 16 patients with chronic recurrent pericarditis but no evidence of constriction was 4.8 ± 2.9 mm. Mean pericardial thickness for patients with constriction was 9.2 ± 7.0 cm with calcification, and 4.6 ± 2.1 cm without calcification. 94% of patients with chronic recurrent pericarditis had gadolinium enhancement of the pericardium, while 76% of patients with constriction had pericardial enhancement. Septal "bounce" was present in 19% of chronic recurrent pericarditis cases and 86% of constriction cases. 5 patients had a pericardial neoplasm, 1 of which was not identified preoperatively. State of the art MR techniques can identify significant and distinct findings in patients with chronic recurrent pericarditis, constrictive pericarditis, and pericardial tumors.     

Consecutive 1127 therapeutic echocardiographically guided pericardiocenteses: clinical profile,practice patterns,and outcomes spanning 21 years

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate consecutive therapeutic echocardiographically (echo)-guided pericardiocenteses performed at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn, from 1979 to 2000 and to determine whether patient profiles, practice patterns, and outcomes have changed over time. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Consecutive echo-guided pericardiocenteses performed between February 1, 1979, and January 31, 2000, for treatment of clinically significant pericardial effusions were identified in the Mayo Clinic Echocardiographic-guided Pericardiocentesis Registry. The medical records of these patients were examined, and a follow-up survey was conducted. Clinical profiles, echocardiographic findings, procedural details, and outcomes were determined for 3 periods: February 1, 1979, through January 31, 1986; February 1, 1986, through January 31, 1993; and February 1, 1993, through January 31, 2000. RESULTS: During the 21-year study period, 1127 therapeutic echo-guided pericardiocenteses were performed in 977 patients. The mean +/- SD age at pericardiocentesis increased from 49+/-14 years in period 1 to 57+/-14 years in period 3. In recent years, cardiothoracic surgery replaced malignancy as the leading cause of an effusion requiring pericardiocentesis and together with malignancy and perforation from catheter-based procedures accounted for nearly 70% of all pericardiocenteses performed. The procedural success rate was 97% overall, with a total complication rate of 4.7% (major, 1.2%; minor, 3.5%). These rates did not change significantly over time. The use of a pericardial catheter for extended drainage increased from 23% in period 1 to 75% in period 3 (P<.001), whereas rates of effusion recurrence and pericardial surgery decreased significantly (P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: The profile of patients presenting with clinically significant pericardial effusion has changed over time. Increasing numbers of older patients and those who have undergone cardiothoracic surgery or catheter-based procedures develop effusions that can be rapidly, safely, and effectively managed with echo-guided pericardiocentesis. Extended drainage with use of a pericardial catheter has become standard practice, and concomitantly, recurrence rates and need for surgical management have decreased considerably.     

Constrictive pericarditis from an embolized hypodermic needle: radiographic, CT and MR imaging findings

We present the radiographic, computed tomographic (CT), and magnetic resonance (MR) findings in a woman with constrictive pericarditis due to an embolized hypodermic needle. The chest films revealed pleural effusions but no foreign body. The CT showed pericardial thickening and a linear foreign body of metallic attenuation in the right ventricular apex, and MR imaging revealed a signal void with magnetic susceptibility artifact. This case illustrates the capabilities and limitations of CT and MR imaging in hypodermic needle-induced constrictive pericarditis.     

Potential Errors in the Diagnosis of Pericardial Effusion on Trauma Ultrasound for Penetrating Injuries

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate ultrasound error in patients presenting with penetrating injury with a potential for pericardial effusion. METHODS: Residents and faculty from an emergency medicine training program at Level 1 trauma center with an active ultrasound program were asked to view digitized video clips of subxiphoid cardiac examinations in patients with chest trauma. Participants were asked to fill out a standardized questionnaire on each video clip asking whether a pericardial effusion was present. Other questions included size of effusion and presence of tamponade. The study also asked participants to rate their confidence in their impressions. Data were analyzed using interquartile ranges and confidence levels. RESULTS: All participants had difficulty distinguishing between epicardial fat pads and true pericardial effusions. The overall sensitivity was 73% and specificity was 44%. Confidence shown by participants in their answers increased with level of training or experience, regardless of whether they were correct or incorrect. Additional views were frequently requested to help decide whether an effusion was present. CONCLUSIONS: A serious potential exists for misdiagnosing epicardial fat pads as pericardial effusion in critically ill trauma patients. Emergency physicians need to be aware of this and should consider one of two suggested alternative methods to improve the accuracy of diagnosis.     

Transitory effusive-constrictive pericarditis

Pericardial effusion of various sizes is a quite common clinical finding, while its progression to effusive-constrictive pericarditis occurs in about 1.4–14% of cases. Although available evidence on prevalence and prognosis of this rare pericardial syndrome is poor, apparently a considerable proportion of patients conservatively managed has a spontaneous resolution after several weeks.A 61-year-old female presented to our emergency department reporting fatigue, effort dyspnea and abdominal swelling. The echocardiography showed large pericardial effusion with initial hemodynamic impact, so she underwent a pericardiocentesis with drainage of 800–850 cm³ of exudative fluid, on which diagnostic investigations were undertaken: possible viral and bacterial infections, medical conditions, iatrogenic causes, neoplastic and connective tissue diseases were all excluded. Despite empirical therapy with NSAIDs and colchicine, after about one week she had a recurrence of pericardial effusion and progressive development of constriction. Echocardiography performed after a few weeks of anti-inflammatory therapy showed resolution of constriction and PE, with clinical improvement.If progression of pericardial syndromes to a constrictive form is rarely described in literature, cases of transitory effusive-constrictive phase are even more uncommon, mainly reported during the evolution of pericardial effusion. According to the available data, risk of progression to a constrictive form is very low in case of idiopathic pericardial effusion. We report a case of large idiopathic subacute pericardial effusion, treated with pericardiocentesis and then evolved into an effusive-constrictive pericarditis. A prolonged anti-inflammatory treatment leads to complete resolution of pericardial syndrome without necessity of pericardiectomy.