胰腺转移癌：CT表现及临床分析

目的 分析胰腺转移癌（PM）的CT影像学表现及临床特点,提高诊断水平.方法 回顾性分析21例经病理学证实PM的CT表现及临床资料.结果 21例PM临床主要表现为腹痛而无其他特殊症状.CT共发现27个病灶,呈圆形或类圆形22个,不规则分叶状5个;位于胰头部16个,胰体、颈部7个,胰尾部4个;26个肿瘤中心点位于胰腺内,1个突出胰腺外.肿瘤直径约7～63 mm,平均35 mm.平扫多呈相对较低密度,不均匀囊实性而边界欠清.增强扫描强化类似于原发肿瘤,多呈不均匀环状强化,明显强化9例,中度强化8例,轻度强化4例;边界逐渐清晰,与正常胰腺间分界清晰、边缘锐利13例,8例边缘较毛糙;伴胆总管轻度扩张3例,伴近端主胰管轻度扩张1例,侵犯胰外血管2例,合并胰腺外转移16例.结论 PM以胰腺单发结节或肿块多见,临床多无特殊症状,CT平扫呈不均匀较低密度而边界欠清,增强强化与原发肿瘤相似;肿瘤中心点多位于胰腺内而突出胰腺外少见;多数合并其他转移但胆、胰管梗阻及胰腺外局部侵犯较少见,腹膜后结构相对较清晰,CT有助于PM的诊断及鉴别.     

胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的CT和MRI表现

目的探讨胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的CT和MRI表现,加深对SPNP的影像及临床病理特点认识,提高影像诊断水平。方法回顾性分析四川省医学科学院四川省人民医院2010年1月至2015年12月期间经手术和病理学检查证实的7例胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的临床及影像资料。重点分析肿块的大小、位置、生长方式、形态、包膜、钙化、出血以及与正常胰腺及周围组织的关系,胆管、胰管扩张等情况,在CT及MR平扫及增强扫描的图像特点。结果 7例均为女性。平均年龄28.3岁,肿瘤平均直径为5.7 cm。1例肿瘤位于胰头部、1例位于胰尾部,5例位于胰体尾部。外生性肿瘤5例,内生性肿瘤2例。肿瘤边界规则5例,不规则2例。4例行CT平扫加增强扫描,均表现为囊实混合型肿块,平扫呈等或低密度,增强扫描动脉期实性部分及囊壁有轻度强化,门静脉期及延迟期呈持续强化且强化程度增加,但始终低于正常胰腺实质;囊性部分三期均未见强化。另3例行MRI平扫加增强,2例肿块内可见出血,其中1例位于胰腺头部,包膜不完整,与十二指肠粘连,压迫胆总管导致肝内外胆管及胰管扩张、胆囊增大。结论胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的CT和MRI影像学表现有一定特征,通过影像学及临床特点可在术前做出较为准确的诊断。     

胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的CT表现与病理对照(附8例分析)

目的分析胰腺实性假乳头状瘤(solid pseudopapillary tumors of pancreas,SPTP)的CT表现。方法观察8例SPTP患者的CT表现,并与手术病理结果对照分析。结果 8例SPTP均为单发、外突性生长的囊实性肿块,其中4例呈类圆形,2例呈卵圆形,2例呈浅分叶状。增强后4例肿瘤实性部分轻中度强化,动脉期与门静脉期无明显差异。7例包膜完整,5例见壁结节,2例伴出血,5例伴钙化,1例伴胰管扩张,1例伴肝脏转移,1例伴胃后壁受侵。8例镜下见假乳头状结构以及出血、坏死及囊性变。结论 SPTP的CT表现具有一定的特征性,反映其病理特征,有助于诊断及鉴别诊断。     

CT、MRI诊断胰腺实性假乳头状瘤

目的探讨CT、MRI诊断胰腺实性假乳头状瘤（SPTP）的临床价值。方法回顾性分析19例经病理证实的SPTP患者的CT及MRI资料。结果①肿瘤位于胰头部8例,尾部5例,体、颈部6例;实性成分为主型9例,囊实成分相间型7例,囊性成分为主型3例;②CT平扫肿瘤实性部分15例呈稍低密度,4例呈等密度,囊性部分呈低密度。增强动脉期肿瘤实性部分呈轻度强化12例,中度强化7例;门静脉期14例呈渐进填充强化,5例无明显变化;延迟期呈不均匀低密度。包膜14例完整,5例不完整,延迟期呈持续强化的高密度;③肿瘤实性部分T1wI呈稍低信号,T2WI呈等或稍高信号;囊性部分7例T1wI呈低信号,T2wI高信号,3例T1wI呈高信号,T2wI呈高低混杂信号。抑脂T2wI4例见环状低信号包膜。动态增强扫描与增强CT表现相仿,动脉期肿瘤以轻度强化为主,门静脉期及延迟期10例肿瘤实性部分均呈持续填充强化,延迟期包膜均明显强化、呈相对高信号。结论SPTP的CT和MRI表现具有一定特征,对术前制定手术方案、术后远期评估具有重要价值。     

胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的CT表现及鉴别诊断

目的 探讨胰腺实性假乳头状瘤（SPTP）的CT表现,提高对该病的诊断水平.方法 回顾性分析11例经手术和病理证实SPTP患者的临床资料及CT表现.结果 11例患者中,9例CT诊断结果与术后病理结果相符,术前诊断准确率82％;肿瘤均为单发灶,胰头5例、胰腺体尾部5例,胰颈部1例;平扫呈囊实性肿块,伴多发钙化灶4例;增强扫描动脉期肿块实性部分轻度强化,门静脉期、平衡期强化程度逐渐明显,但其强化程度均低于正常胰腺组织,肿块囊实性交界部分呈片状相间分布,呈“浮云”征.11例边界清晰,5例可见包膜.瘤体相邻的正常胰腺组织增大伴“杯口征”改变10例,胆总管轻度扩张2例,胰管轻度扩张1例.结论胰腺实性假乳头状瘤相邻的正常胰腺组织增大伴“杯口征”,出现此征象可准确判断肿瘤组织起源于胰腺,结合 SPTP好发于年轻女性及其影像学特征,术前CT检查可做出正确定性诊断与术前准确评估,为临床治疗方案提供重要资料依据.     

胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的临床病理及CT表现

胰腺实性假乳头状瘤好发于青春期少女和年轻成年女性,胰尾、胰头为好发部位.CT表现为:①边界清楚的圆形或椭圆形囊实性肿块,CT平扫实性结构呈低或等密度,动态增强后实性部分早期轻度强化,后期呈渐进性强化.②肿瘤内可有钙化和出血,实质区多为点状钙化,包膜上环形钙化或斑片状钙化.③肿瘤多有完整包膜.增强后强化明显,与胰腺分界清晰.④很少引起胆总管和胰管扩张.本文对胰腺实性假乳头状瘤的流行病学特点、临床病理表现及CT表现特点进行综述.     

胰腺实性-假乳头状瘤的CT影像表现与病理对照

目的探讨胰腺实性-假乳头状瘤的影像学表现及临床病理特点,以提高对此类疾病的影像学诊断认识。方法回顾性分析经手术病理证实的12例胰腺实性-假乳头状瘤患者的临床资料、CT影像表现,将影像学表现与手术病理结果对照。结果 12例均为单发病灶。肿瘤体积较大,最大径为1.5～12 cm,平均5.2 cm。肿瘤位于胰头5例,胰颈3例,胰体2例,胰尾2例。术前CT检查6例可见完整包膜,3例可见不完整包膜,3例未见到包膜。12例患者中3例肿块边缘见点线状钙化,3例肿块中央见条片状钙化,1例肿块中央及边缘均见钙化,5例肿块内未见钙化。平扫主要表现为圆形或分叶状囊实性肿块,增强后实性部分动脉期轻度强化,延迟扫描呈渐进性强化,10例瘤体内出现乳头状或间隔状强化。7例伴有胰管轻度扩张。病理特征为肿瘤细胞围绕的血管轴心形成的假乳头状结构,外周伴纤维包膜。结论胰腺实性-假乳头状瘤的影像表现具有相对特征性,有助于术前诊断和手术方案的选择。     

卵巢透明细胞癌的CT和MRI表现

目的探讨卵巢透明细胞癌(OCCA)的CT和MRI表现。方法回顾性分析9例经病理证实的OCCA的CT及MRI资料。对6例行CT平扫及增强检查,对7例行MR平扫及增强扫描。结果 9例中,4例先后接受CT及MR平扫、增强检查,2例仅接受CT平扫及增强检查,3例仅接受MR平扫及增强检查。①肿瘤位于左侧卵巢3例,右侧4例,跨中线生长2例,瘤体直径2.2~12.4cm;8例为囊实性肿块,以囊性为主,1例为多房囊性肿块。②CT表现:6例中,5例为以囊性为主的囊实性肿块,均为单房,密度均匀,1例为多房囊性肿块,囊液密度不均,囊内分隔粗细均匀;动脉期5例实性部分及分隔中度强化,1例明显强化;静脉期均持续强化。6例均见完整包膜,延迟强化呈稍高密度。③MRI表现:7例中,6例为以囊性为主的囊实性肿块,囊性部分呈长T1长T2信号,实性部分呈稍长T1稍长T2信号,DWI均呈高信号;1例多房囊性肿块,囊液信号不均,分隔呈等T1稍长T2信号。增强扫描6例肿瘤实性部分动脉期不均匀强化,静脉期均呈持续性较均匀明显强化,分隔持续明显强化。延迟期包膜持续强化,呈稍高信号。结论 OCCA的CT和MRI表现具有一定特征,有助于与其他富血供肿瘤相鉴别。     

卵巢透明细胞癌CT表现

目的分析卵巢透明细胞癌(OCCC)的CT表现。方法回顾性分析22例OCCC(26个病灶)的CT表现,包括肿瘤位置、形态、大小、边界、CT平扫和强化特征及有无肺动脉栓塞等。结果 4例病灶位于于双侧卵巢,18例病灶位于单侧卵巢。肿瘤呈类圆形或类椭圆形,边界清,有包膜,平均最长径(12.54±4.48)cm。26个病灶中,26.92%(7/26)为实性,3.85%(1/26)为囊性,69.23%(18/26)为囊实性。18个囊实性病灶中,12个为单房囊实性,实性成分呈结节状、球状、团片状、云絮状或分叶状向囊内突出,病灶平扫呈等或稍低密度(CT值28~47 HU)。增强扫描2个实性病灶和1个囊实性病灶实性成分动、静脉期均呈明显强化,23个(23/26,88.46%)病灶实性成分呈进行性中度到明显强化。囊实性病灶囊性成分和囊性病灶平扫及增强各期CT值为13~34HU。6例患者伴不同程度肺动脉栓塞。4例患者伴恶性腹腔积液。结论 OCCC好发于单侧,多表现为边界清晰的单房囊实性肿块,实性成分呈多种形态向囊内突出,增强扫描多呈进行性中度到明显强化,同时易伴发肺栓塞。     

无功能性胰腺神经内分泌肿瘤的MRI表现及治疗

[摘要] 目的 探讨无功能性胰腺神经内分泌肿瘤（non-Punctioning pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms,NF-pNENs）的MRI表现及治疗措施,提高诊疗水平。方法 回顾性分析11例经病理学证实的无功能性胰腺神经内分泌肿瘤的MRI及临床资料。结果 11例肿瘤均为单发,7例呈类圆形,4例呈不规则分叶状。7例边界较清晰,4例局部侵犯导致边界不清。肿瘤最大直径约23～137 mm,平均60.1 mm。其中实性5例,囊实性5例,囊性1例。MRI平扫肿瘤实性成分呈不均匀T1WI较低T2WI较高信号,囊变、坏死区为T1WI低T2WI高信号,DWI均为不均匀高信号。增强实性部分7例明显持续强化,3例呈中等持续强化,1例轻度延迟强化。9例见完整或不完整的包膜结构较明显强化,3例见胆总管和（或）主胰管增宽,3例肝脏转移,2例腹膜后淋巴结转移,2例腹腔少量积液。11例均经手术治疗,9例达到根治性切除。术后7例接受全身化疗,4例仅接受中医药治疗。术后随访6～63个月,3例死亡,平均生存时间35.7个月;8例仍存活。结论 MRI有利于反映NF-pNENs的病理学变化,对其诊断具有重要价值。手术切除是NF-pNENs的主要治 疗手段,一旦确诊应争取根治性切除。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.