MAPK信号转导通路与神经损伤研究进展

丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPKs)是一种胞浆内广泛分布的丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶,在真核细胞中,由4条平行的信号转导通路组成。细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶1/2(ERK 1/2)通路、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)和(或)应激活化蛋白激酶(SAPK)通路、p38 丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(p38 MAPK)通路和细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶5(ERK 5)/大丝裂原活化蛋白激酶1(BMKl)通路。近年来的研究发现MAPK信号通路与神经损伤相关。ERK 1/2和p38在神经损伤的区域迅速磷酸化激活,减少神经损伤对机体带来的影响;磷酸化JNK在神经损伤部位聚集,促进神经细胞的凋亡,加重神经损伤的发生;ERK 5是细胞增殖与分化、器官发生与胚胎发育中不可缺少的信号蛋白,磷酸化ERK 5通过促进胰岛素在神经元中的表达促进神经细胞存活。除此之外MAPK各分子在不同刺激和不同疾病中的作用不同。     

Resveratrol improves sperm parameter and testicular apoptosis in cisplatin-treated rats: Effects on ERK1/2, JNK,and Akt pathways

This study aimed to investigate the protective role of resveratrol (RES) against cisplatin (Cis)-induced testicular damage and reproductive dysfunction in rats and to examine the underlying mechanisms of protection including its effect on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, P53, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1/2, stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK), and Protein kinase B (Akt) signaling. Eight-week-old Rats were divided into four groups (n = 12 each) of 1) control group: received normal saline (i.p.) as vehicle for 45 days, 2) RES-treated group: received RES (20 mg/kg, i.p) for 45 days, 3) Cis-treated group: received Cis (3 mg/kg) for 3 days and then continued on normal saline, and 4) Cis + RES-treated group: received Cis for the first 3 days and then continued on RES for the next 45 days. Serum sex hormones levels, sperm parameters, and levels of testicular antioxidant potential and inflammatory mediators were assessed in all rats. In addition, activation of ER stress, P53, ERK1/2, JNK, and Akt and markers of apoptosis were evaluated in rats’ testis. Cis lowered sperm count and motility and increased sperm morphological abnormalities. Testis of Cis-treated rats had low expression of antioxidant enzymes including SOD, CAT, and GPx and decreased the level of GSH. Concomitantly, Cis upregulated levels of cleaved caspase-3, P53, calpain-1/cleaved caspase-12, p-ERK1/2, and p-SAPK/p-JNK. However, RES administration post-Cis administration restored all sperm parameters and prevented testicular apoptosis mediated by inhibition of all above-mentioned apoptotic pathways. Moreover, RES enhanced testosterone, FSH, and LH levels and upregulated p-Akt/p-Bad levels in both control and Cis-treated rats. In conclusion, RES protects against Cis-induced testicular damage and reproductive dysfunction via improving testosterone levels, increasing sperm count, reducing testicular apoptosis via an antioxidant potential, inhibition of ER stress, P53, ERK1/2, JNK, and activation of Akt.

Abbreviations: RES: resveratrol, Cis: cisplatin; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; ERK1/2: extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2; SAPK/JNK: stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase; Akt: protein kinase B; HPG axis: hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids; FSH: Follicular stimulating hormone; LH: Luteinizing hormone; PBS: phosphate buffered saline; GSH: reduced glutathione; GSSG: glutathione disulfide; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-6: interleukin-6; GRx: glutathione reductase; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase; 4HNE: 4-hydroxynonenal.     

ERK和JNK/活化蛋白-1通路在苯并(a)芘诱导人胚肺成纤维细胞周期改变中的作用

目的探讨丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)/转录因子活化蛋白-1(AP-1)信号通路在调控苯并(a)芘[B(a)P]致人胚肺成纤维细胞(HELF)周期改变中的作用。方法用AP-1荧光素酶报告基因技术检测AP-1荧光素酶活力,流式细胞术测定细胞周期时相分布,免疫印迹法检测MAPK[包括细胞外调节蛋白激酶(ERK)、c-Jun氨基末端激酶(JNK)和p38激酶]总量及磷酸化水平,用MAPK显性失活突变体(DN)(DN-ERK2、DN-JNK1和DN-p38)证明通路的上下游关系。结果2μmol/L B(a)P分别处理细胞0、6、122、4 h,AP-1活力在12 h达峰值,是对照组的2.22倍,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);ERK1/2、JNK1/2和p38蛋白激酶的磷酸化水平明显提高,分别是对照组的2.5、14.0和2.1倍;B(a)P处理组S期细胞比例(50.2%±4.6%)与对照组(16.7%±8.1%)相比明显增加,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);ERK2和JNK1显性失活突变体的过表达均可明显降低B(a)P诱导的AP-1活力增强,并且明显降低B(a)P处理组S期细胞比例(分别为33.3%±1.7%,30.8%±3.9%),差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);p38显性失活突变体的过表达对B(a)P引起的AP-1活力增强及S期细胞比例增加无影响。AP-1化学抑制剂姜黄素(20μmol/L)可明显降低B(a)P引起的S期细胞比例增加(13.6%±2.9%),差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论ERK和JNK通过活化AP-1介导B(a)P诱导的细胞周期改变;而B(a)P诱导的AP-1活力增强及细胞周期改变与p38无关。     

电磁辐射诱导PC12细胞凋亡中丝裂原活化蛋白激酶的差别激活

目的探讨丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号转导系统的差别激活与电磁辐射诱导PC12细胞凋亡的关系。方法以65mWcm2电磁波辐照离体培养PC12细胞20min,分为辐照后即刻及3、12、24h共4个观察时相点,采用流式细胞仪检测PC12细胞凋亡率,采用蛋白质免疫印迹法检测ERK12、JNK、P38MAPK蛋白质磷酸化水平。结果电磁波辐照后即刻PC12细胞凋亡开始增加;3h后凋亡细胞进一步明显增多,凋亡率约为23.5%;12h后细胞凋亡率与3h相比,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);24h后细胞凋亡再次明显增加,并达到高峰。电磁辐射后PC12细胞ERK12和JNK蛋白质磷酸化都明显增加,但ERK12的增加持续到3h,JNK蛋白磷酸化水平增高一直持续到12h,24h后两者都较对照组明显降低。P38MAPK蛋白质磷酸化水平在辐照后一直处于较高水平,其变化趋势呈双峰状,即在3h和24h出现2次磷酸化高峰。结论电磁辐射可以激活MAPK信号转导系统,但ERK12、JNK、P38MAPK表现为差别激活。MAPK信号转导系统可能参与了电磁辐射诱导的PC12细胞凋亡,正是MAPK这种差别激活才导致PC12细胞出现特有的凋亡变化形式。     

Suppressive effect of taurine on platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) BB-induced c-fos and c-jun mRNA expressions through extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in mesenchymal cell lines

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) plays an important role in the pathogenic course of atherosclerosis, pulmonary fibrosis, and glomerulonephritis, and increased activity of the PDGF signaling pathway has been implicated as a contributing factor in the progression of the diseases. Taurine may be a prophylactic amino acid for atherosclerosis not only by decreasing plasma cholesterol level, but also by inhibiting the cell proliferation-signaling pathway. To elucidate how taurine affects the signaling pathway, we investigated the effect of taurine on the expression of immediate-early genes and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in NIH/3T3 cells as standard mesenchymal cells. Taurine inhibited PDGF-BB-induced c-fos and c-jun mRNA expressions dose-dependently, although structural analogues of taurine did not. Taurine decreased the PDGF-induced p44/p42 ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) phosphorylation state dose-dependently, although no phosphorylation was observed on JNK/SAPK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase) and p38 MAPK. Further, PDGF-BB-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the PDGF-beta receptor was not influenced by treatment with taurine, indicating that taurine never affects ligand-receptor interaction, and may act downstream of the PDGF receptor. Thus, the inhibitory mechanism of taurine on PDGF-induced c-fos and c-jun mRNA expressions may depend on the p44/p42 ERK pathway, but not on PDGF-beta receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, JNK/SAPK or p38 MAPK pathway. These results suggest that taurine may suppress the cell proliferation-signaling pathway through the inhibition of ERK activity and immediate-early gene expression.     

Epicatechin Gallate Induces Cell Death via p53 Activation and Stimulation of p38 and JNK in Human Colon Cancer SW480 Cells

The tea flavonoid epicatechin gallate (ECG) exhibits a wide range of biological activities. In this study, the in vitro anticancer effects of ECG on SW480 colon cancer cell line was investigated by analyzing the cell cycle, apoptosis, key proteins involved in cellular survival/proliferation, namely AKT/phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and the role of p53 in these processes. ECG induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1-S phase border associated with the stimulation of p21, p-p53, and p53 and the suppression of cyclins D1 and B1. Exposure of SW480 cells to ECG also led to apoptosis as determined by time-dependent changes in caspase-3 activity, MAPKs [extracellular regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK)], p21 and p53 activation, and AKT inhibition. The presence of pifithrin, an inhibitor of p53 function, blocked ECG-induced apoptosis as was manifested by restored cell viability and caspase-3 activity to control values and reestablished the balance among Bcl-2 anti- and proapoptotic protein levels. Interestingly, ECG also inhibited p53 protein and RNA degradation, contributing to the stabilization of p53. In addition, JNK and p38 have been identified as necessary for ECG-induced apoptosis, upon activation by p53. The results suggest that the activation of the p53-p38/JNK cascade is required for ECG-induced cell death in SW480 cells.     

ERK和JNK/AP-1通路参与石英诱导的细胞周期改变

目的 探讨在石英刺激的人胚肺成纤维细胞(human embryo lung fibroblasts,HELF)中转录因子活化蛋白-1(activator protein-1,AP-1)的活性改变,以及丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase,MAPK),AP-1通路在石英诱导的细胞周期改变中的作用.方法 用200 μg/ml石英处理HELF细胞;用免疫荧光法检测细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular signal-regdated protein kinase,ERK)和c-Jun氨基末端激酶(c-Jun N-terminal kinase,JNK)蛋白磷酸化水平及细胞分布;运用AP-1荧光素酶报告基因技术检测AP-1荧光素酶活力;用MAPK显性失活突变体(dominant negative mutant,DN)(DN-ERK2、DN-JNKl和DN-p38)证明通路的上下游关系;用流式细胞术检测细胞周期变化.结果 用200μg/ml石英分别处理转染AP-1报告基因的细胞(HELF-AP-1)6、12、24h,结果显示,AP-1活性随着时间变化而发生变化,6 h活性增强,12 h活性达峰值,24 h活性略有降低;用200 μg/ml石英分别处理细胞1和2 h,结果显示,ERK和JNK在石英刺激1 h后,磷酸化水平升高,主要集中于胞浆,2 h后磷酸化水平进一步升高,并主要集中于胞核;200 μg/ml石英处理细胞24 h,G1期细胞所占比例从(63.80±9.57)%下降到(32.23±7.22)%,S期细胞所占比例从(35.17±10.33)%升高到(66.00±8.07)%;AP-1化学抑制剂姜黄素(20μmol/L)可明显减弱石英引起的G1期细胞比例减少和S期细胞比例增加;DN-ERK和DN-JNK的过表达均可明显降低石英诱导的AP-1活性增强,DN-p38的过表达对石英诱导的AP-1活性增强无明显影响.结论 200 μg/ml石英可诱导AP-1活性增强,并通过ERK、JNK/AP-1通路诱导细胞周期改变.     

Diallyl trisulfide inhibits angiogenic features of human umbilical vein endothelial cells by causing Akt inactivation and down-regulation of VEGF and VEGF-R2

We have shown recently that diallyl trisulfide (DATS), a cancer-chemopreventive constituent of garlic, inactivates Akt to trigger mitochondrial translocation of proapoptotic protein BAD in human prostate cancer cells. Because Akt activation is implicated in the promotion of endothelial cell survival and angiogenesis, we hypothesized that DATS may inhibit angiogenesis. In the present study, we tested this hypothesis using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) as a model. Survival of HUVECs was reduced significantly in the presence of DATS in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC50 of approximately 4 microM. The DATS-mediated suppression of HUVEC survival was associated with apoptosis induction characterized by accumulation of subdiploid cells, cytoplasmic histone-associated DNA fragmentation, and cleavage of caspase-3 and poly-(ADP-ribose)-polymerase. The DATS-induced DNA fragmentation was significantly attenuated in the presence of pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk and specific inhibitors of caspase-9 (zLEHD-fmk) and caspase-8 (zIETD-fmk). DATS treatment inhibited the formation of capillary-like tube structure and migration by HUVECs in association with suppression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion and VEGF receptor-2 protein level and inactivation of Akt kinase. DATS treatment also caused activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) but not c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) or p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK).DATS-mediatedapoptosis induction and inhibition of HUVEC tube formation was partially but statistically significantly attenuated by pharmacologic inhibition of ERK1/2 but not JNK or p38MAPK. The present study demonstrates, for the first time, that DATS has the ability to inhibit angiogenic features of human endothelial cells.     

C-Phycocyanin and Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Protect against Aspirin-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis in Gastric RGM-1 Cells

Aspirin causes gastrotoxicity and damaged epithelial defense via cyclooxygenase inhibition. C-phycocyanin (CPC) and Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP), an active ingredient of Spirulina platensis and wolfberry, respectively, exerted antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and/or immunoregulation. The actions of CPC and/or LBP on gastric damage induced by aspirin were explored in rat gastric mucosal RGM-1 cells. Gastric injury was performed by 21 mM aspirin for 3 h after the pretreatment of CPC and/or LBP (100–500 μg/mL) for 24 h in RGM-1 cells. Proinflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and apoptotic markers were examined by ELISA or gel electrophoresis and Western blotting. Cell viability and interleukin 10 (IL-10) were reduced by aspirin. Increased proinflammatory markers, caspase 3 activity, and Bax protein were observed in RGM-1 cells with aspirin treatment. Aspirin elevated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, while CPC and/or LBP increased IL-10, and attenuated proinflammatory markers, Bax protein, NF-κB, and the activation of ERK and JNK. Therefore, CPC and/or LBP possess anti-inflammation by restraining the activation of the ERK signaling pathway, and LBP decreases apoptosis by suppressing the JNK signaling pathway activation in gastric RGM-1 cells with aspirin-induced epithelial damage.     

丝裂原活化蛋白激酶信号转导通路在电磁辐射诱导PC12细胞凋亡中的作用

目的 探讨丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号转导系统的差别激活与电磁辐射诱导PC12细胞凋亡的关系.方法 经MAPK特异性抑制剂SB203580、U0126预处理的PC12细胞接受65mW/cm2电磁波辐照20min,在辐照后3、24h2个观察时相点,采用蛋白质免疫印迹方法检测ERK1/2、JNK、P38 MAPK蛋白质磷酸化水平,采用Annexine-V-FITC标记流式细胞仪检测PC12细胞凋亡率.结果 电磁辐射后,PC12细胞ERK1/2的激活可以被U0126明显抑制,而SB203580对其无抑制作用.U0126和SB203580对辐照后JNK的活性无明显影响.SB203580可以明显抑制P38 MAPK的激活,而U0126对P38 MAPK激活的抑制作用不明显.SB203580可以明显减轻电磁辐射诱导的PC12细胞凋亡,而U0126预处理对细胞凋亡无明显影响.结论 电磁辐射诱导PC12细胞凋亡主要通过P38 MAPK信号通路的激活调控,而ERK通路对电磁辐射诱导的细胞凋亡无明显影响,JNK可能对辐照后早期的细胞凋亡有一定促进作用.     

Low dose beta-carotene supplementation of ferrets attenuates smoke-induced lung phosphorylation of JNK, p38 MAPK, and p53 proteins

We demonstrated previously that smoke exposure and/or high-dose beta-carotene supplementation decreases levels of retinoic acid and retinoic acid receptor beta (RARbeta) protein, but increase levels of c-Jun and proliferating cellular nuclear antigen protein in the lungs of ferrets. In contrast, low-dose beta-carotene can prevent the decreased lung retinoic acid and the smoke-induced lung lesions. In the present study, we investigated whether smoke exposure and/or beta-carotene supplementation could affect Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and p53 in the lungs of ferrets. Ferrets were subjected to cigarette smoke exposure and either a high or low dose of beta-carotene (2 x 3 factorial design) for 6 mo. There were greater protein levels of phosphorylated JNK, p38, and c-Jun, but lower levels of MAPK phophatase-1 (MKP-1) in groups exposed to smoke and/or high dose beta-carotene. Both phosphorylated-p53 and total p53 were substantially increased in the lungs of these groups. In contrast, low-dose beta-carotene greatly attenuated the smoke-induced phosphorylation of JNK, p38, c-Jun, p53, and total p53, accompanied by upregulated MKP-1. Smoke exposure increased MAPK kinase-4 (MKK4) phosphorylation regardless of beta-carotene supplementation. These data indicate that restoration of retinoic acid and MKP-1 by low-dose beta-carotene in the lungs of ferrets may prevent the smoke-induced activation of the JNK-dependent signaling pathway, p38 MAPK, and the associated phosphorylation of p53, thereby lowering the risk of the smoke-related lung lesions. These data provide supportive evidence that the beneficial vs. detrimental effects of beta-carotene supplementation are related to the dosage of beta-carotene administered.     

丝裂原活化蛋白激酶磷酸酶-1在妇产科相关疾病中的研究进展

丝裂原活化蛋白激酶磷酸酶（mitogen-activated kinase phosphatase,MKPs）是一类在细胞内水解丝裂原活化蛋白激酶（mitogen-activated protein kinases,MAPKs）的家族,通过负向调控MAPKs参与细胞的应激、分化、增殖、凋亡等细胞过程,其异常表达与肿瘤的发生、发展密切相关。MKP-1是MKPs家族中被报道最多的成员,具有最强的去磷酸化能力。综述MKP-1在妇产科相关疾病,包括生殖器肿瘤、子宫内膜异位症以及子痫前期的研究进展,阐述MKP-1在疾病中的表达特征、病理作用及其机制;重点讨论了MKP-1在子宫内膜异位症发生发展中的作用,阐述了MKP-1与MAPKs的相互作用对子宫内膜异位症发生、发展过程的影响,为今后的研究方向提供参考。     

铝致大鼠皮层神经元凋亡及应激活化蛋白激酶活性的变化

目的：探讨氯化铝（AlCl3）对大鼠皮层神经元凋亡的诱导作用及其与应激活化蛋白激酶，又称c-jun氨基末端激酶（SAPK／JNK）信号转导通路的关系。方法：原代无血清培养至第7天，用不同剂量AlCl3(0、10、100、1000μmol/L）处理大鼠皮层神经元48h，然后用琼脂糖凝胶电泳及AnnexinⅤ联合PI染色法检测细胞凋亡；用免疫印迹法(Western blot)检测SAPK／JNK磷酸化水平的时间变化规律。结果：各染铝组均出现DNA ladder这一典型的凋亡特征，且随剂量增加渐趋明显，各剂量组细胞凋亡率明显升高，与对照组相比差异有显著性（P＜0．05），呈明显的剂量－效应关系。6h时SAPK／JNK磷酸化程度达到最高，以后逐渐降低，呈时间－效应关系（P＜0．05）。结论：铝诱导大鼠皮层神经元凋亡可能与SAPK／JNK信号转导通路有关。     

Effects of pentachlorophenol and tetrachlorohydroquinone on mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in Jurkat T cells

When Jurkat human T cells were incubated with 20 microM of pentachlorophenol (PCP) or its metabolite, tetrachlorohydroquinone (TCHQ), for 10 hr, flow cytometric analyses revealed marked increase in the number of apoptotic cells. DNA fragmentation was also observed in these cells. TCHQ was more potent than PCP in causing apoptosis. After incubation with 20 microM TCHQ for 1 hr, all mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) examined [i.e., extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK)] were phosphorylated, whereas no clear phosphorylation was induced by PCP. TCHQ-induced apoptosis was markedly suppressed by treatment with a p38 inhibitor (SB203580) and mildly (but significantly) suppressed by treatment with a MAPK/ERK kinase inhibitor (U0126). When cells were treated with both inhibitors at the same time, TCHQ-induced apoptosis disappeared almost completely. PCP-induced apoptosis was also suppressed by SB203580 and/or U0126. Nevertheless, treatment with LL-Z1640-2, which inhibits JNK phosphorylation, did not suppress the apoptosis caused by either TCHQ or PCP. Thus, p38 and ERK appear to be important signal transduction pathways leading to apoptosis in a human T-cell line exposed to a ubiquitous pollutant or its metabolite in the general and occupational environment.     

丝裂原活化蛋白激酶通路正性调节苯并(a)芘所致细胞周期改变

目的 研究苯并（a）芘（BaP）对人胚肺成纤维细胞（HELF）的细胞周期分布及丝裂原活化蛋白激酶（MAPK）信号分子（ERK1／2、JNK1／2和p38）磷酸化水平的影响,并探讨MAPK磷酸化水平改变与细胞周期效应之间的关系。方法 用0．1、0．5、2．5和12．5μmol／L的BaP处理HELF细胞24h,用蛋白印迹方法检测ERK1／2、JNK1／2和p38蛋白激酶的磷酸化水平和蛋白总量的改变,利用流式细胞技术检测2．5μmol／LBaP处理24h后对HELF细胞周期的影响。结果 不同剂量BaP可明显提高ERK1／2、JNK1／2和p38蛋白激酶磷酸化水平;2．5μmol／LBaP处理24h,细胞周期分布与二甲基亚砜对照组相比,G0与G1期细胞数下降了11．9％（F=41．38,P〈0．01）,S期细胞数增加了17．2％（F=68．13,P〈0．01）;三种MAPK化学抑制剂（AG126、SP600125及SB203580）可明显抑制BaP处理引起的细胞周期的改变。结论 ERK1／2、JNK1／2和p38均参与了BaP所致细胞周期改变过程．并发挥币性调节作用。     

Ceramide conversion to sphingosine-1-phosphate is essential for survival in C3H10T1/2 cells.

Ceramide and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) are important dietary lipids involved in cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis and cell survival. Treatment of C3H10T1/2 murine fibroblast cells (10T1/2) with ceramide did not induce apoptosis, a commonly observed effect of ceramide treatment. To determine whether the metabolism of ceramide played a role in this resistance to apoptosis, inhibitors of ceramidase and sphingosine kinase, two important enzymes in sphingolipid metabolism, were used. Treatment of 10T1/2 cells both without or with ceramide plus N-oleoyl-ethanolamine (NOE) and (1S,2R)-D-erythro-s-(N-myristoylamino)-1-phenol-1-propanol (MAPP), two ceramidase inhibitors, resulted in fourfold and eightfold increases, respectively, in apoptosis. Cells treated without or with ceramide plus N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS), a potent sphingosine kinase inhibitor, resulted in fourfold and sixfold increases, respectively, in apoptosis. In all treatments the induction of apoptosis was prevented by the addition of S1P. With the addition of S1P with NOE and MAPP as well as with ceramide, treatments reduced the apoptotic response by 30 and 35%, respectively; whereas the addition of S1P with the DMS only and ceramide with DMS treatments reduced the apoptotic response by 60 and 70%, respectively. Studies using labeled ceramide demonstrated ceramide was metabolized to S1P. In addition, a 14-fold increase in apoptosis occurred in cells treated with a nonhydrolyzable analog of ceramide, ceramine, compared with vehicle control. Because inhibiting the conversion of ceramide to S1P resulted in apoptosis, the lack of an apoptotic response to ceramide alone for C3H10T1/2 cells is attributable to the conversion of this pro-apoptotic sphingolipid to the anti-apoptotic metabolite S1P, which is essential for cell survival.     

Induction of apoptosis through the activation of SAPK/JNK followed by the expression of death receptor Fas in X-irradiated cells

A post-irradiation treatment of the human leukemia cell line MOLT-4 with the antioxidant Trolox attenuated caspase-3 dependent apoptosis. The increase in the p53 expression and SAPK/JNK activation after X irradiation was also inhibited by a Trolox treatment, but the expression of BCL-2 and BAX, which would occur downstream from p53, was not changed. Studies on the effects of the intracellular calcium chelator BAPTA-AM on the induction of apoptosis and the activation of SAPK/JNK and caspase-3 proved that the chelation of calcium merely delayed the onset of radiation-induced apoptosis and the activation of SAPK/JNK and caspase-3. When the effects of the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximde on the apoptotic signaling pathways, including the activation of caspase family proteins and SAPK/JNK, were investigated, the expression of death receptor Fas through SAPK/JNK activation was found to be required for radiation-induced apoptosis. Finally, the relationship between the amounts of DNA dsb and induction of apoptosis was examined by irradiating BrdU-incorporated cells. An increase in DNA dsb caused by BrdU was found, but the induction of apoptosis was not enhanced. From these data, we could get no positive evidence for DNA as a target of X-rays and p53 as an indispensable factor to induced apoptosis in X-irradiated MOLT-4 cells.