Arthroscopic management of mucoid degeneration of anterior cruciate ligament

Background:

Mucoid degeneration of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a less understood entity. The purpose of this study was to diagnose mucoid degeneration of anterior cruciate ligament and to assess the effectiveness of arthroscopic treatment in these patients.

Materials and Methods:

Between December 2007 and November 2011, 20 patients were diagnosed to be suffering from mucoid degeneration of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) on the basis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), histopathology, and arthroscopy findings. 12 patients were males and 8 patients were females, with mean age of 42.2 years for males (range 28-52 years) and 39.4 years for females (range 30–54 years). They presented with pain on terminal extension (n=10) and on terminal flexion (n=2) without history of significant preceding trauma. MRI showed an increased signal in the substance of the ACL both in the T1- and T2-weighted images, with a mass-like configuration that was reported as a partial or complete tear of the ACL by the radiologist. At arthroscopy, the ACL was homogenous, bulbous, hypertrophied, and taut, occupying the entire intercondylar notch. A debulking of the ACL was performed by a judicious excision of the degenerated mucoid tissue, taking care to leave behind as much of the intact ACL as possible. Releasing it and performing a notchplasty treated impingement of the ACL to the roof and lateral wall. In one patient, we had to replace ACL due to insufficient tissue left behind to support the knee.

Results:

Good to excellent pain relief on terminal flexion–extension was obtained in 19 of 20 knees. The extension deficit was normalized in all knees. Lachman and anterior drawer test showed a firm endpoint in all, and 85% (n=17) showed good to excellent subjective satisfaction.

Conclusions:

Mucoid hypertrophy of the ACL should be suspected in elderly persons presenting pain on terminal extension or flexion without preceding trauma, especially when there is no associated meniscal lesion or ligamentous insufficiency. They respond well to a judicious arthroscopic release of the ACL with notchplasty.     

关节镜下前交叉韧带袖套状保残重建的临床效果

目的:观察袖套状保留残端的关节镜下前交叉韧带重建的临床效果。方法:收集2012年1月至2014年12月于骨科就诊的42例前交叉韧带损伤患者,其中男17例,女25例,平均年龄28.4岁,平均受伤时间5.5周(2~12周)。采用关节镜下重建前交叉韧带,同时保留胫骨侧韧带残端,通过滑膜袖套恢复残端张力。治疗前及治疗后2、6、12个月采用Lachman试验、前抽屉试验对稳定性进行评价,术后12个月采用Lysholm评分和Tegner运动分级评价膝关节功能。治疗前和治疗后12个月行膝关节MRI检查。结果:术后2、6、12个月Lachman试验、前抽屉试验均为阴性。术前Lysholm评分37.8±7.1,Tegner评分2.1±0.4;术后12个月的Lysholm评分96.8±6.1,Tegner评分6.2±0.9,均高于术前。术后12个月复查MRI显示前交叉韧带显影良好。结论:关节镜下前交叉韧带袖套状保残重建可以获得良好的临床效果。     

Injury of the anterior cruciate ligament: the role of collagenase in ligament degeneration

Rapid degeneration of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) has been observed following acute ACL rupture. An understanding of this process might explain some of the poor clinical results of primary ACL repair. We created a surgical rabbit model of acute ACL injury and developed an in vitro assay for collagenase activity in the ACL and menisci. Microscopic evaluation revealed a rapidly degenerative process in injured ACLs, with loss of cellularity and matrix organization. This was associated with a significant increase in collagenase activity and a decrease in total collagen of the injured ACLs as compared with sham-operated controls. These findings confirm the observation that cut ACL ligament ends rapidly degenerate. This degenerative process might be partly due to a response of cells intrinsic to the ACL to injury. Left unchecked, this process may be detrimental to surgical attempts for primary ACL repair.     

Biomechanics of the anterior cruciate ligament:Physiology,rupture and reconstruction techniques

The influences and mechanisms of the physiology,rupture and reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament(ACL)on kinematics and clinical outcomes have been investigated in many biomechanical and clinical studies over the last several decades.The knee is a complex joint with shifting contact points,pressures and axes that are affected when a ligament is injured.The ACL,as one of the intra-articular ligaments,has a strong influence on the resulting kinematics.Often,other meniscal or ligamentous injuries accompany ACL ruptures and further deteriorate the resulting kinematics and clinical outcomes.Knowing the surgical options,anatomic relations and current evidence to restore ACL function and considering the influence of concomitant injuries on resulting kinematics to restore full function can together help to achieve an optimal outcome.     

Principles of postoperative anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation

It is known that anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction needs to be combined with detailed postoperative rehabilitation in order for patients to return to their pre-injury activity levels, and that the rehabilitation process is as important as the reconstruction surgery. Literature studies focus on how early in the postoperative ACL rehabilitation period rehabilitation modalities can be initiated. Despite the sheer number of studies on this topic, postoperative ACL rehabilitation protocols have not been standardized yet. Could common, “ossified” knowledge or modalities really prove themselves in the literature? Could questions such as “is postoperative brace use really necessary?”, “what are the benefits of early restoration of the range of motion (ROM)?”, “to what extent is neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) effective in the protection from muscular atrophy?”, “how early can proprioception training and open chain exercises begin?”, “should strengthening training start in the immediate postoperative period?” be answered for sure? My aim is to review postoperative brace use, early ROM restoration, NMES, proprioception, open/closed chain exercises and early strengthening, which are common modalities in the very comprehensive theme of postoperative ACL rehabilitation, on the basis of several studies (Level of Evidence 1 and 2) and to present the commonly accepted ways they are presently used. Moreover, I have presented the objectives of postoperative ACL rehabilitation in tables and recent miscellaneous studies in the last chapter of the paper.     

Proprioception in anterior cruciate ligament deficient knees and its relevance in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) not only causes mechanical instability but also leads to a functional deficit in the form of diminished proprioception of the knee joint. “Functional” recovery is often incomplete even after “anatomic” arthroscopic ACL reconstruction, as some patients with a clinically satisfactory repair and good ligament tension continue to complain of a feeling of instability and giving way, although the knee does not sublux on clinical testing. Factors that may play a role could be proprioceptive elements, as the intact ACL has been shown to have significant receptors. Significant data have come to light demonstrating proprioceptive differences between normal and injured knees, and often between injured and reconstructed knees. ACL remnants have been shown to have proprioceptive fibers that could enhance functional recovery if they adhere to or grow into the reconstructed ligament. Conventionally the torn remnants are shaved off from the knee before graft insertion; modern surgical techniques, with remnant sparing methods have shown better outcomes and functional recovery, and this could be an avenue for future research and development. This article analyzes and reviews our understanding of the sensory element of ACL deficiency, with specific reference to proprioception as an important component of functional knee stability. The types of mechanoreceptors, their distribution and presence in ACL remnants is reviewed, and suggestions are made to minimize soft tissue shaving during ACL reconstruction to ensure a better functional outcome in the reconstructed knee.     

关节镜下保留残端重建前交叉韧带的临床前瞻性对照研究

目的 前瞻性评估保留残端对于前交叉韧带重建临床疗效的意义.方法 2008年8月至2009年9月共70例有韧带残端存留的前交叉韧带损伤患者入选本研究组,随机分为保留残端组(n=35)和对照组(n=35).分别采取关节镜下保留残端重建前交叉韧带和切除残端的前交叉韧带重建手术技术,移植物均使用同种异体肌腱.术后随访分别进行膝关节功能评分(IKDC分级和Lysholm评分)、客观稳定性评估(Lachman试验、轴移试验和KT-1000测量)、本体感觉功能测量和二次关节镜手术探查.结果 70例患者中共61例(87%)获得随访,平均随访时间13.1个月.两组的功能评分无显著差异:Lysholm评分:保留残端组96.4分,对照组94.9分(P=0.71);IKDC分级中A和B级:保留残端组30例,对照组29例(P=0.586).两组的客观稳定性评估无显著差异:KT-1000测量的侧-侧差值:保留残端组1.69 mm,对照组1.65 mm(P=0.83);Lachman试验阴性例数:保留残端组29例,对照组28例(P=1.00);轴移试验阴性例数:保留残端组31例,对照组27例(P=0.225).本体感觉的角度重复试验结果无显著差异:保留残端组4.56°,对照组4.28°(P=0.522).二次手术探查时发现的移植物滑膜覆盖率无显著差异:保留残端组85%,对照组84.2%.结论 保留残端同时使用异体肌腱移植重建前交叉韧带,对术后膝关节主观功能评分、稳定性和本体感觉和移植物滑膜覆盖程度并无促进作用.

Abstract：

Objective To evaluate the clinical significance of arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)reconstruction using the remnant-preserved technique.Methods From August 2008 to September 2009,70 cases with the remnant of injured ACL were included in the trials,which were randomized into the remnant preservation(RP)group and the control group,35 cases in each group.All patients in the two groups underwent arthroscopic ACL reconstruction surgeries,with ACL-remnant preserving technique in RP group and ACL-remnant resection in control group,respectively.The injured ACL was reconstructed with allograft in all cases.Postoperative follow-up assessment included the International Knee Documentation Committee(IKDC)grading and Lysholm score,Lachman test,pivot shift test and KT-1000 measurement,proprioception measurements and the arthroscopic second look evaluation.Results Sixty-one(61/70,87%)cases were available for an average of 13.1 months follow-up assessment postoperatively.There were no significant differences between the RP and control group in functional outcome as evaluated with Lysholm score(96.4 vs.94.9,P = 0.71)and IKDC grading(cases with A and B gradings:30 vs.29,P = 0.586).Regarding objective stability,there were no differences between the 2 group in mean side-to-side difference of KT-1000(1.69 mm vs.1.65 mm,P =0.83),Lachman test(negative cases:29 vs.28,P = 1.00)and pivot shift test(negative cases:31 vs.27,P =0.225).There was also no difference between the groups in proprioception evaluation measured with angle repetitive test(4.56°vs.4.28°,P=0.522).During second look arthroscopic examination,the grafts synoveal coverage rates were found to be 85% in the RP group and 84.2% in the control group,without significant difference(P＞0.05).Conclusions Arthroscopic ACL reconstruction with the remnant preserving technique using tendon allograft do not improve the postoperative knee-joint function scores,stability,proprioception and synovial coverage of grafts.     

Imaging of the anterior cruciate ligament

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is an important structure in maintaining the normal biomechanics of the knee and is the most commonly injured knee ligament. However, the oblique course of the ACL within the intercondylar fossa limits the visualization and assessment of the pathology of the ligament. This pictorial essay provides a comprehensive and illustrative review of the anatomy and biomechanics as well as updated information on different modalities of radiological investigation of ACL, particularly magnetic resonance imaging.     

Simultaneous reconstruction of anterior cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament by using allogeneic patellar tendon under arthroscopy

With fast development of arthroscopic surgery inChina, simple reconstruction of ACL (anteriorcrucial ligament) or PCL has been reported in number. However , the methods concerningsimultaneous reconstruction of ACL and PCL are rarelyreported. Simultaneous …     

保留并牵张胫骨残端的前交叉韧带双束重建

目的探讨保留并牵张胫骨残端的前交叉韧带（ACL）双束重建方法的近期临床效果。方法对56例急性股骨附着端撕裂的ACL损伤患者,在外伤后6周之内进行保留残留纤维的ACL双束重建。双束重建方法为采用八股胭绳肌肌腱的反向构型的四隧道重建,术中残留纤维近端用PDS线穿缝,将缝线从深束股骨隧道拉出以维持张力。术后随访1年以上,按照IKDC和Lysholm膝关节评分标准评价疗效。结果所有患者均获得随访。最后随访时,55例患者（98．2％）Lachman试验阴性,1例患者Lachman试验I度阳性。KT－1000检查显示双侧膝关节前向松弛度差值平均为（－0．48mm±1．41mm）（术前8．09mm±1．86mm,t=36．09,P〈0．01）;其中29例（51．8％）〈0mm,即患侧关节稳定度高于健侧;26例（46．4％）为0～2mm;1例（1．8％）〉2mm。所有患者轴移实验检查均为阴性。活动度检查发现49例伸屈活动度均正常,1例有5°屈膝欠缺,1例患者有10°屈膝欠缺,4例有5°过伸欠缺。从膝关节稳定性方面分析,55例（98．2％）IKDC评级为正常,1例（1．8％）评级为接近正常。综合分析,51例（91．1％）IKDC评级正常,5例（8．9％）为接近正常。术后IKDC膝关节主观评分为（94．9±3．7）分,Lysholm评分为（93．71±3．3）分。受伤前Tegner评分平均为7．3,最后随访时为6．9。结论在亚急性期进行保留并牵张胫骨残端的ACL双束重建,能够建立具有高度稳定性的膝关节,使所有患者获得IKDC评级正常或者接近正常的结果。     

前十字韧带重建术后骨隧道扩大与临床疗效的关系

目的回顾性研究腘绳肌腱重建前十字韧带患者,探讨骨隧道扩大的特点、影响因素及其与临床效果的关系。方法103例自体腘绳肌腱重建前十字韧带的患者术后12～18个月进行MR检查,分别测量股骨隧道、胫骨隧道矢状位宽度并与术后1个月MRI中的骨隧道宽度对比。根据隧道扩大的程度分为4级:0级<2mm、1级2～4mm、2级4～6mm、3级≥6mm。测量股骨隧道轴线与髁间窝顶线的夹角α,胫骨隧道轴线与胫骨平台平面夹角β。以Lysholm评分测定膝关节功能,采用膝关节屈曲30°时KT-1000测量相对移动度。对股骨隧道、胫骨隧道不同级别间Lysholm评分、KT值、α值和β值进行对比。结果103例患者中共有27例(26.2%)出现了骨隧道扩大,16例股骨隧道(1级11例,2级5例),19例胫骨隧道(1级12例,2级7例),8例双侧骨隧道同时扩大。股骨隧道扩大各级别之间、胫骨隧道扩大各级别之间Lysholm评分差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。2级股骨隧道扩大组KT值大于0级和1级组(P<0.05),2级胫骨隧道扩大组KT值大于0级和1级组(P<0.05)。2级股骨隧道扩大组角α值小于0级和1级组(P<0.05),胫骨隧道扩大各级别之间角β值差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论采用腘绳肌腱重建前十字韧带术后部分患者会出现明显骨隧道扩大,扩大数值较大时会出现胫骨前移增加。股骨隧道角对股骨隧道扩大有一定影响。     

青少年患者前交叉韧带断裂的重建

目的 总结一组青少年患前交叉韧带断裂后利用骨—髌腱—骨进行关节镜下重建的经验。方法 回顾性研究1996年～2000年23例青少年前交叉韧带断裂在纽约关节病医院行骨—髌腱—骨重建。采用Lysholm及IKDC评分系统评定临床疗效。结果 随访26月～63月，平均随访37月，Lysholm评分平均94分，21例膝关节功能恢复到损伤前的正常活动水平。IKDC评分18例(78．3％)膝关节功能正常，3例(13．0％)一般，2例(8．7％)较差。无1例在随访时有关节不稳定的表现。结论 骨—髌腱—骨法重建前交叉韧带同样适用于青少年患，术中应特别注意两端骨块的固定。     

前十字韧带重建后止点转归的研究

目的比较前十字韧带重建后两种韧带止点（腱－骨愈合和骨－骨愈合）的转归。方法切除犬前十字韧带,游离髌腱中 1/3,远端带胫骨骨块,近端取髌前筋膜。重建前十字韧带时,将髌前筋膜置于股骨隧道,建立腱－骨愈合模型;将胫骨骨块置于胫骨隧道,建立骨－骨愈合的模型。采用常规组织学方法,观察前十字韧带重建后这两种韧带止点在术后 1.5、 3、 6、 12个月时的组织学表现。结果正常前十字韧带止点具有四层移行结构,即韧带组织、纤维软骨、钙化软骨和骨组织,在纤维软骨和钙化软骨两者之间可见规律的"潮线"。骨－骨愈合在一年时有类似韧带止点的移行结构,但四层结构分界不明显,没有"潮线"形成。腱－骨愈合在一年时可见分界清楚的韧带止点四层结构,"潮线"也比较规律。结论腱－骨愈合的转归成熟比骨－骨愈合快。     

关节镜下同种异体韧带重建前交叉韧带的临床研究

目的探讨关节镜下应用同种异体肌腱重建膝关节前交叉韧带的近期和远期效果。方法自2002年1月～2003年1月,对7例前交叉韧带断裂患者(全部为男性,平均年龄42.0岁)应用深低温同种异体胫前肌腱重建断裂的前叉韧带,术后指导患者行功能锻炼。采取IKDC(国际膝关节评分委员会)功能评分、Lysholm评分、Tengner评分标准对患者术前,术后8个月,术后6年膝关节主观功能评分;采用KT2000在屈膝30°、90°,134N下分别测量患者术前,术后8个月,术后6年胫骨前后移动的距离。结果 7例均获随访,随访达6～7年,平均6.5年。患者术前与其他两组(术后8个月和术后6年)IKDC、Lysholm、Tengner评分比较,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。术后8个月、术后6年之间三种评分比较,差异均没有统计学意义(P0.05);KT2000屈膝30°、90°,134N下胫骨前后移动距离,术前和其他两组(术后8个月和术后6年)之间比较,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05),而术后8个月和术后6年之间比较,差异均没有统计学意义(P0.05)。所有患者无出现重建的前交叉韧带再断裂现象。结论同种异体肌腱能简单有效地重建膝关节前叉韧带。正确选取韧带和适当推迟康复进程是确保疗效的要点之一。     

Arthroscopic placement of the interference screw for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

This article describes a simple technique to check arthroscopically the position of the interference screw in bone patellar tendon bone reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament. With this simple and inexpensive method we can be sure that the bone plug in the tunnel has a rigid fixation and that the screw does not damage that graft.     

Anatomic double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Objective: To retrospectively evaluate the early results of anatomic double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction and compare with the results of native ACL of the contralateral knee.M...     

不同后交叉韧带指数测量方法对前交叉韧带损伤的诊断价值

目的:比较6种不同测量方法下的后交叉韧带(posterior cruciate ligament,PCL)指数(Index),分析验证其在前交叉韧带(anterior cruciate ligament,ACL)损伤中的临床诊断价值。方法:回顾性分析2018年5月至2022年3月收治的225例患者的膝关节MRI资料,年龄18～60岁,中位数32岁。根据ACL是否损伤,分为ACL正常组和ACL损伤组。在114例ACL损伤和111例ACL完整受试者的膝关节MRI矢状位图像上,测量MRI矢状位PCL在股骨附着点和胫骨附着点之间的直线距离(A)和该直线到矢状位图像上PCL弧形标记点之间的最大垂直距离(B),计算PCL Index并评估其对ACL损伤的诊断价值。结果:ACL正常组和ACL损伤组PCL Index1、2、3、6比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);两组PCL Index4、5比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.001)。ACL正常组的PCL Index2、6与患者年龄呈负相关性(相关系数=-0.213,-0.189;P<0.05),ACL损伤组的PCL Index5与...     

膝关节前交叉韧带急性损伤早期关节镜下检查和手术治疗

目的 探索关节镜下早期微创修复与重建膝关节交叉韧带（ＡＬＣ）的方法。方法 对２３例ＡＣＬ急性完全断裂者施行了早期关节镜术。结果 １８例主前诊断相符;３你关节镜下明确诊断,２例发现断裂：观察到内侧副韧带断裂间接与直接损伤征象各２例。ＡＣＬ断裂病理类型：韧带体部断裂２１例,上、下止点撕脱各１例。２１例早期重建ＡＣＬ中,６例在关节镜下完成。结论 ＡＣＬ急性损伤早期施以关节镜手术,创伤小、诊断明确,可观察     

Biologic agents for anterior cruciate ligament healing: a systematic review

AIM To systematically review the currently available literature concerning the application of biologic agents such as platelet-rich plasma(PRP) and stem cells to promote anterior cruciate ligament(ACL) healing.METHODS A systematic review of the literature was performed on the use of biologic agents(i.e., PRP or stem cells) to favor ACL healing during reconstruction or repair. The following inclusion criteria for relevant articles were used: Clinical reports of any level of evidence, written in English language, on the use of PRP or stem cells during ACL reconstruction/repair. Exclusion criteria were articles written in other languages, reviews, or studies analyzing other applications of PRP/stem cells in knee surgery not related to promoting ACL healing.RESULTS The database search identified 394 records that were screened. A total of 23 studies were included in the final analysis: In one paper stem cells were applied for ACL healing, in one paper there was a concomitant application of PRP and stem cells, whereas in the remaining21 papers PRP was used. Based on the ACL injury pattern, two papers investigated biologic agents in ACL partial tears whereas 21 papers in ACL reconstruction.Looking at the quality of the available literature, 17 out of 21 studies dealing with ACL reconstruction were randomized controlled trials. Both studies on ACL repair were case series.CONCLUSION There is a paucity of clinical trials investigating the role of stem cells in promoting ACL healing both in case of partial and complete tears. The role of PRP is still controversial and the only advantage emerging from the literature is related to a better graft maturation over time, without documenting beneficial effects in terms of clinical outcome, bone-graft integration and prevention of bony tunnel enlargement.     

Evaluation of the clinical signs of anterior cruciate ligament and meniscal injuries

Background:

The diagnostic accuracy of anterior drawer (AD) sign, Lachman test and the pivot shift test for anterior cruciate ligament injury and McMurray test for medial and lateral meniscus is varied with sensitivity and specificity ranging from 2 to 100%. Generally, it is accepted that the pivot shift test is the most specific test to diagnose anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears and that the Lachman test is more sensitive than AD sign. This study was undertaken to calculate the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and efficiency for the above-mentioned diagnostic tests.

Materials and Methods:

Twenty-eight male patients with clinical ACL injury were examined in the outpatient department and under anaesthesia, the findings were compared with arthroscopy.

Result:

The sensitivity and specificity for the Lachman test, AD sign and pivot shift test performed in the outpatient setting are 78.6 and 100%, 89.3 and 100%, and 75 and 100%, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity for the Lachman test, AD sign, and pivot shift test performed under anesthesia are 92.9 and 100%, 92.9 and 100%, and 100 and 100%, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the McMurray test for medial and lateral meniscus were 35.7 and 85.7% and 22.2 and 100%, respectively.

Conclusion:

The Lachman test, AD sign and pivot shift test are highly specific tests to diagnose ACL laxity in a non-acute setting; pivot shift test under anesthesia is the most sensitive and specific test for diagnosing ACL laxity in a non-acute setting and the McMurray test is not a sensitive test to diagnose meniscal injury in the presence of ACL injury.