重症急性胰腺炎合并腹腔室隔综合征诊治分析

目的总结重症急性胰腺炎合并腹腔室隔综合征的早期诊断及临床治疗经验。方法回顾分析17例重症急性胰腺炎合并腹腔室隔综合征临床治疗资料。结果腹腔置管或开腹减压引流组13例死亡4例,3例穿刺引流减压不充分,腹腔室隔综合征(abdominal compartment syndromes,ACS)持续进展,并发多器官功能衰竭综合征(multiple organ dysfunction syndrome,MODS)死亡,1例开腹减压延迟关腹术后低蛋白血症,合并腹腔感染死亡;未引流减压组4例中3例并发MODS,2周内死亡。结论重症急性胰腺炎基础治疗的同时不能忽略腹腔内压的监测,一旦腹腔室隔综合征确诊应及时行腹腔减压。     

腹腔镜下置管灌洗引流辅以清胰排毒汤在重症急性胰腺炎早期诊疗中的应用

目的将腹腔镜下置管腹腔灌洗引流（LPLD）辅以清胰排毒汤这一方法应用于重症急性胰腺炎的早期治疗，与传统的开腹手术方法进行比较。方法将我院2006年1月-2008年9月11例重症急性胰腺炎（SPA）患者随机分为治疗组和对照组，治疗组在腹腔镜下置管腹腔灌洗引流（LPLD）辅以清胰排毒汤，对照组采用传统开腹灌洗引流的方法进行治疗。结果治疗组6例，治愈5例（治愈率83．33％），术后恢复时间为15—29天，平均23天，未发生并发症，术后亦未因切口疼痛而应用止痛药物。死亡1例（死亡率16．67％），死于多脏器功能衰竭。对照组5例，治愈4例（治愈率80％），术后恢复时间为35～78天，平均54天，1例患者出现了结肠瘘，经积极处理痊愈出院。全部患者均因切口疼痛需注射止痛药物。死亡1例（死亡率为20％），死于多脏器功能衰竭。结论腹腔镜下置管腹腔灌洗引流（LPLD）辅以清胰排毒汤在重症急性胰腺炎早期诊疗中主要有如下优点：手术创伤小、时间短、术后恢复快，改善患者的中毒症状及可缩短病程。     

CT引导下穿刺置管引流在急性重症胰腺炎早期辅助治疗中的价值

目的探讨CT引导下穿刺置管引流在急性重症胰腺炎早期辅助治疗中的价值。方法收集本院及邵逸夫医院2009年11月至2011年11月期间19例早期有腹腔渗液急性重症胰腺炎病例,进行CT引导下置管引流治疗。结果19例患者共行24次穿刺置管引流,所有病例行CT引导下置管引流后症状均减轻,其中13例病例引流后症状明显好转,行保守治疗后治愈出院;6例症状有缓解,后再行外科手术治疗;1例死于多脏器功能衰竭;18例治愈出院。结论急性重症胰腺炎患者CT引导下穿刺置管引流定位准确,患者耐受性好;有较高的辅助治疗价值。     

经皮穿刺置管引流与直接开腹手术引流治疗胰腺坏死组织感染的疗效比较

目的 比较经皮穿刺置管引流和直接开腹手术引流治疗重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)合并胰腺坏死组织感染的临床效果.方法 回顾性分析2008年1月至2009年12月治疗的90例合并胰腺坏死组织感染的SAP患者的临床资料,根据针对感染的胰腺坏死组织首先采取的治疗方法的不同将患者分为经皮穿刺置管引流组和直接开腹手术引流组,其中经皮穿刺置管引流组27例,直接开腹手术引流组63例.经皮穿刺置管引流组首先在彩色超声或CT引导下穿刺置管引流,冲洗3 d后评价引流效果,无明显改善则中转开腹手术引流.直接开腹手术引流组在确诊胰腺坏死组织感染后直接开腹手术引流.结果 经皮穿刺置管引流组的避免开腹手术引流率(48.1%比0,P＜0.05)和一次开腹手术引流成功率(92.9%比85.7%,P＜0.05)均明显高于直接开腹手术引流组,而术后残余脓肿(7.1%比28.6%,P＜0.05)、术后新发单脏器功能障碍(7.4%比28.6%,P＜0.05)、新发消化道瘘(7.4%比27.0%,P＜0.05)、远期并发症(3.7%比22.2%,P＜0.05)的发生率均低于直接开腹手术引流组.此外,经皮穿刺置管引流组的平均ICU治疗时间[(21.2±9.7)d比(28.7±12.1)d,P＜0.01],平均住院时间[(48.2±12.5)d比(59.6±17.5)d,P＜0.05]和住院费用[(191 762±5892)元比(341 689±10 854)元,P＜0.05]均低于直接开腹手术引流组.结论 经皮穿刺置管引流能有效降低多次开腹手术引流率和术后残余脓肿发生率,治疗后近期和远期并发症的发生率均明显下降,并且平均ICU治疗时间、平均住院时间、平均住院费用明显下降.     

分期微创手术方式在重症急性胰腺炎外科治疗中的应用

目的 探讨重症急性胰腺炎（SAP）的手术时机及手术方式。方法 对广东省人民医院2000年1月至2004年12月收治的62例SAP病人进行回顾性分析。结果 在早期手术组中，总手术死亡率57．1％，其中开腹手术组和CT引导下穿刺引流组（穿刺引流组）手术死亡率分别为75％和33．3％，两组差异无显著性（P=0．274）。总并发症发生率为57．1％，其中开腹手术组和穿刺引流组并发症分别为100％和0。在延期手术组中，总手术死亡率18．5％，与早期手术组相比差异有显著性（P=0．039），其中开腹手术组和分期微创手术组手术死亡率分别为71．4％和0，两组相比差异有显著意义（P=0．01）；总并发症发生率为25．9％，与早期手术组相比差异具显著性（P=0．01）；开腹手术组和分期微创手术组并发症发生率分别为100％和0，两组相比差异具显著性（P=0．000）。结论 分期微创手术治疗是重症急性胰腺炎外科治疗中一个较好的手术方式。     

比较经皮穿刺与开腹引流术治疗重症急性胰腺炎的临床效果

目的比较经皮穿刺与开腹引流术治疗重症急性胰腺炎的效果。方法选取2013-01-2017-12间鄢陵县人民医院收治的69例重症急性胰腺炎患者。依据不同治疗方案分为2组,开腹组34例实施开腹引流术,经皮穿刺组35例实施经皮穿刺引流术。结果经皮穿刺组总有效率高于开腹组,并发症发生率低于开腹组,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论经皮穿刺引流较开腹引流术治疗重症急性胰腺炎,可降低术后并发症发生率,效果佳。     

早期多时点多部位B超引导下穿刺置管引流联合血液净化治疗高脂血症性重症急性胰腺炎的疗效

目的探讨早期多时点多部位B超引导下穿刺置管引流联合血液净化治疗高脂血症性重症急性胰腺炎的疗效。方法回顾性分析2010年1月至2014年6月期间湖南省人民医院收治的34例高脂血症性重症急性胰腺炎患者的临床资料,根据发病至就诊时间的不同分为≤24 h组和24 h组,均予以早期多时点多部位B超引导下穿刺置管引流联合血液净化治疗,分别测定入院时及入院后第1、3、5、7和10天的血小板活化因子(PAF)及甘油三酯(TG)水平,并观察患者的住院时间、死亡率和转开腹手术率。结果 2组患者入院后各时点的PAF和TG水平均较入院时均明显下降(P0.05),且≤24 h组患者的PAF和TG下降的水平较24 h组要低些;≤24 h组患者的住院时间明显短于24 h组(P0.05),死亡率及转开腹手术率均低于24 h组(P0.05)。结论早期多时点和多部位B超引导下穿刺引流联合血液净化,在高脂血症性重症急性胰腺炎及其合并症的治疗中具有较大的应用价值。     

B超引导下穿刺置管引流在重症急性胰腺炎治疗中的应用价值

目的探讨B超引导下穿刺置管引流技术在重症急性胰腺炎治疗中的应用价值。方法 36例重症急性胰腺炎患者均行腹腔穿刺置管引流,其中经皮肝胆管(胆囊)穿刺置管引流(PTCD)23例,腹膜后积液(脓肿)穿刺置管冲洗引流16例,配合常规内科治疗,取得满意效果。结果所有患者穿刺置管过程顺利,均未出现与穿刺相关的并发症如气胸、血胸、腹腔内出血、穿刺部位感染等。所有患者在禁食、胃肠减压、抗生素、生长抑素、制酸、维持水电解质酸碱平衡及肠内外营养支持治疗的基础上辅以超声引导下穿刺置管引流,仅1例暴发性胰腺炎患者发生脓腔内大出血导致多器官衰竭而死亡,其余35例均治愈,无中转开腹手术,患者腹痛、腹胀、腹部压痛等主要症状和体征缓解时间为(4.4±1.3)d(1～7 d),尿淀粉酶恢复正常时间为(3.1±1.5)d(2～8 d),住院时间为(23.4±7.3)d(16～55 d)。结论 B超引导下穿刺置管引流术操作简单、创伤轻微,在重症急性胰腺炎治疗中有重要价值。     

超声引导经皮腹膜后穿刺置管引流前腹腔穿刺引流治疗重症急性胰腺炎的临床价值

目的探讨超声引导经皮腹膜后穿刺置管引流前腹腔穿刺引流治疗重症急性胰腺炎的临床效果。方法重症急性胰腺炎病人98例,采用随机数字表将其分为两组,对照组49例,采用超声引导经皮腹膜后穿刺置管引流术,试验组49例,先行腹腔穿刺引流治疗,而后超声引导经皮腹膜后穿刺置管引流。比较两组病人术后外周血白细胞水平恢复正常所需时间、器官衰竭率、住院时间、治疗前和治疗后(术后7天)膀胱压、APACHE-Ⅱ评分、血栓素A2(TXA2)含量、前列环素(PGI_2)含量和临床疗效。结果试验组和对照组术后术后外周血WBC恢复正常所需时间分别为(22.31±1.96)天和(26.84±2.07)天,器官衰竭率分别为34.69%和57.14%,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗后试验组和对照组APACHE-Ⅱ评分分别为(6.94±3.22)和(11.91±3.86),TXA_2分别为(146.53±20.61)ng/ml和(218.21±17.94)ng/ml,PGI_2分别为(173.54±15.38)ng/ml和(146.47±16.12)ng/ml,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05);两组病人临床疗效比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论超声引导经皮腹膜后穿刺置管引流前腹腔穿刺引流治疗重症急性胰腺炎,能够显著改善预后,减少器官系统的衰竭,提高临床疗效。     

超声引导下经皮穿刺置管引流在重症急性胰腺炎治疗价值的探讨:附57例报告

目的:探讨超声引导下经皮穿刺置管引流(PCD)在治疗重症急性胰腺炎急性液体积聚的应用价值。方法:回顾性分析1998年1月—2008年12月57例重症急性胰腺炎患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析,57例患者均有急性液体积聚,28例行超声引导下经皮穿刺置管引流治疗(引流治疗组),29例未穿刺引流行保守治疗(保守治疗组);两组患者在年龄,性别,CT严重指数(CTSI),APACHEⅡ评分等方面无统计学差异,具可比性。结果:引流治疗组与保守治疗组病死率比较,差异无统计学意义(P=1.000);引流治疗组与保守治疗组比较,胰腺假性囊肿的发生率低(P=0.033),住院时间短(P=0.002),中转手术率低(P=0.043)。结论:超声引导下经皮穿刺置管引流治疗重症急性胰腺炎可降低并发症,在治疗重症急性胰腺炎急性液体积聚有一定的治疗价值。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.