Quality of life and psychological issues in peritoneal dialysis patients

Both peritoneal dialysis (PD) and hemodialysis (HD) patients have diminished quality of life (QOL) scores compared to healthy patients. QOL tends to decline over time, with the perception of the quality of physical health deteriorating more than mental health. However, many patients continue to feel hopeless, anxious, and worry about finances, loss of sexual function, family burden, and loss of independence. Depression is the most widely acknowledged psychosocial factor seen in patients with chronic kidney disease. Major depression occurs in 25% of patients facing impending dialysis. Once on PD, the proportion with major depression sharply declines to approximately 6%. This may be due to adjustment to dialysis, but may also be because depressive symptoms are associated with an increased risk of death. A low QOL score and depression are associated with higher comorbidity, poorer nutritional status, anemia, lower residual renal function, and increased hospitalization rates. Increased depressive scores are independently predictive of an elevated peritonitis risk, perhaps due to inattentiveness, or alternatively from a decrease in immune defenses. Small molecule clearances appear to have little to do with depressive symptoms. Depression is a significant problem in PD and other dialysis patients. There is an interrelationship between psychosocial factors, perception of illness, and clinical outcome that requires further study. Serial and simple measures of both depression and QOL should be obtained routinely in all PD patients. This permits rapid recognition of problems and may enhance patients' education on the importance of depression. Further research on interventions is urgently needed.     

Chronic kidney disease in the general population

End-stage kidney disease (ESKD), defined as the need for dialysis, receipt of a transplant, or death from chronic kidney failure, generally affects fewer than 1% of the population. However ESKD is the end result of chronic kidney disease (CKD), a widely prevalent but often silent condition with elevated risks of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and a range of metabolic complications. A recently devised classification of CKD has facilitated prevalence estimates that reveal an "iceberg" of CKD in the community, of which dialysis and transplant patients are the tip. Hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity, currently among the World Health Organization's (WHO's) top 10 global health risks, are strongly associated with CKD. The factors, together with increasing diabetes prevalence and an aging population, will result in significant global increases in CKD and ESKD patients. Treatments now available effectively reduce the rate of progression of CKD and the extent of comorbid conditions and complications. The challenges are (1) to intervene effectively to reduce the excess burden of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with CKD, (2) to identify those at greatest risk for ESKD and intervene effectively to prevent progression of early CKD, and (3) to ultimately introduce cost-effective primary prevention to reduce the overall burden of CKD. The vast majority of the global CKD burden will be in developing countries, and policy responses must be both practical and sustainable in these settings.     

Depression and sexual dysfunction in chronic kidney disease: a narrative review of the evidence in areas of significant unmet need

People with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have a high symptom burden and experience poorer quality of life than the general population. People with CKD frequently report fatigue, anorexia, pain, sleep disturbance, itching and restless legs. Depression and sexual dysfunction may also be common in CKD, although questions about optimal diagnosis and treatment remain unanswered. People with kidney disease identify lifestyle and the impact of CKD on family and psychosocial supports as key priorities and rate symptoms such as sexual dysfunction and psychological distress as severe. Here, we outline the current state of research underlying depression and sexual dysfunction in this population focusing on prevalence, diagnosis, screening, outcomes and interventions and suggest areas requiring additional specific research.     

慢性肾脏病4期以上焦虑和抑郁状态的动态变化

目的分析慢性肾脏病4期、血液透析和腹膜透析患者在1年随访中的焦虑和抑郁状态的变化及原因。方法选择在我科住院并随访的慢性肾脏病4期患者28例（慢性肾脏病4期组）、血液透析患者21例（血液透析组）、腹膜透析患者43例（腹膜透析组）,用Hamilton焦虑和抑郁量表,在0个月（慢性肾脏病4期组在入院时、或血液透析组和腹膜透析组在初始进入透析）、6个月和12个月进行问卷调查。结果选择在我科住院并随访的慢性肾脏病4期患者28例（慢性肾脏病4期组）、血液透析患者21例（血液透析组）、腹膜透析患者43例（腹膜透析组）,用Hamilton焦虑和抑郁量表,在0个月（慢性肾脏病4期组在入院时、或血液透析组和腹膜透析组在初始进入透析）、6个月和12个月进行问卷调查。结果0个月时,Hamilton焦虑和抑郁指数腹膜透析组最高,血液透析组次之,慢性肾脏病4期组患者较轻（P〈0．05）。6个月后,血液透析组的心理问题最重（P〈O．05）,慢性肾脏病4期组和腹膜透析组较轻。12个月后,慢性肾脏病4期组的心理问题较严重,血液透析组次之,腹膜透析组较轻（P〈0．05）。结论慢性肾脏病4期和透析患者焦虑抑郁的发生率较高,其中透析患者更高。随着时间的推移,患者在各时问段的心理状态有一定的变化。     

Health-related quality of life in different stages of renal failure

Measures of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) have a significant predictive value on patient survival and hospitalizations, especially in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). In this review, some of the major studies performed in patients with different stages of renal failure are presented. The most used instrument for measuring HRQoL is the Short form health survey questionnaire (SF-36). Patients with predialysis CKD had higher SF-36 scores than a large cohort of hemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients, but lower scores than those reported for the adult population. Kidney transplantation offers better HRQoL than dialysis. Hemoglobin level predicted both physical and mental domain scores of the SF-36. HRQoL of HD and PD patients were compared in only a few studies, mostly because these studies are difficult to interpret. PD patients generally have lower comorbidity scores at the onset of end-stage renal disease (ESRD), independent of other factors influencing modality selection. Comorbid medical conditions are common in patients with ESRD, and are an important contributing factor to clinical outcomes and quality of life. Depression occurs in about 20-30% of dialysis patients. This is important because of the negative impact depression has on quality of life, but also because depression is now established as a factor that can significantly affect morbidity and mortality in ESRD patients. Sexual life satisfaction showed marked deterioration in all age groups. Patients aged over 65 scored significantly better than younger patients on dialysis stress scales, and were generally more satisfied with life. Longitudinal studies are needed to define periods at risk for decline in HRQoL during progression of CKD.     

Chronic kidney disease progression in kidney transplant recipients: A focus on traditional risk factors

Kidney transplant recipients are a subset of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) that remain at high risk for progression to dialysis and mortality. Recent advances in immunosuppression have only partially improved long‐term graft and patient survival. Discovery of new immunosuppressive regimens is a slow and resource‐intensive process. Hence, recognition and management of modifiable allogeneic and non‐allogeneic risk factors for progression to CKD among kidney transplant recipients is of major interest for improving long‐term outcomes. Graft survival is mainly determined by the quality of the allograft and by the patient’s alloimmune response, which is influenced by human leukocyte antigen matching and the presence of donor‐specific antibodies. Alloimmune responses manifest as acute and chronic forms of cell‐ and antibody‐mediated rejection, which can be worsened by patient non‐adherence or under‐immunosuppression. However, donor and patient ages, glomerular disease recurrence, time on dialysis, pre‐existing cardiovascular burden, medication side‐effects and traditional risk factors, such as hypertension, proteinuria, anaemia, dyslipidaemia, diabetes and bone mineral disorder, which can ultimately lead to severe endothelial derangement, also contribute to graft loss and mortality. These traditional risk factors, common to pre‐dialysis patients, often are considered of secondary importance when compared to alloimmunity and immunosuppression concerns. In this review article, we focus on the epidemiological, pathophysiological and therapeutic features of non‐allogeneic traditional risk factors for CKD. We also discuss the benefit of adopting a multidisciplinary approach to pursue the same therapeutic targets recommended for pre‐dialysis patients.     

Quality of life in patients with chronic kidney disease: focus on end-stage renal disease treated with hemodialysis

The proper measures for assessing quality of life (QOL) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) remain unclear. QOL measures are subjective or objective, functional or satisfaction-based, and generic or disease-specific. Treatment of end-stage renal disease with transplantation and treatment of anemia with erythropoietin in patients with CKD have been associated with dramatic improvements of QOL. Other factors such as age, ethnic or national background, stage of CKD, modality of dialytic therapy, exercise interventions, sleep disturbances, pain, erectile dysfunction, patient satisfaction with care, depressive affect, symptom burden, and perception of intrusiveness of illness may be associated with differential perception of QOL. Recent studies showed an association between assessment of QOL and morbidity and mortality in end-stage renal disease patients, suggesting the measures do matter. Further studies are necessary in patients with early stages of CKD and in children. QOL measures should include validated psychosocial measures of depressive affect, perception of burden of illness, and social support. The challenge for the next decade will be to continue to devise interventions that meaningfully increase the QOL of patients with CKD at all stages.     

Psychosocial evaluation of Chinese living related kidney donors

Zhao W‐Y, Zeng L, Zhu Y‐H, Wang L‐M, Zhou M‐S, Han S, Zhang L. Psychosocial evaluation of Chinese living related kidney donors.
Clin Transplant 2010: 24: 766–771. © 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Abstract: Background: Although living kidney transplantation has numerous advantages over cadaveric transplantation, donor apprehension remains a problem. This study investigated psychosocial features and quality of life in Chinese living kidney donors after transplantation procedures. Methods: Participants were 84 donors interviewed during follow‐up after donation. Sociodemographic characteristics were evaluated by a 22‐item questionnaire. Social support, quality of life, depression, and anxiety were objectively measured with the Social Support Rating Scale for Chinese, the Short‐Form 36 Health Survey, the modified Beck Depression Inventory, and the Self‐Rating Anxiety Scale questionnaire, respectively. Results: All donors volunteered without pressure from families or recipients. Altruistic motives were the main impetus for donation, and donors had good social support. Living transplantation affected donors’ quality of life, with a slight negative effect on some physical aspects. There were no major depressive or anxiety disorders following donation. Conclusions: Living kidney donation was a generally positive experience without evidence of major psychological disturbance. However, considering the limited size and duration of our study, we recommend careful follow‐up of all donors. We also recommend provision of social support services and removal of financial disincentives for donors.     

亲属活体供肾者术后心理状态调查和分析

目的 分析与研究亲属活体供肾者术前一般情况和术后心理状态.方法 应用自编个人资料问卷、社会支持评定量表、SF-36量表、Beck抑郁自评量表和Zung焦虑自评量表(SAS)对56名活体供肾者术后6个月至4年时的心理状态进行调查分析.结果 供者以女性、农村中低收入、低学历者居多,所有供者自愿捐肾.供者术后客观和主观支持良好,支持利用度稍差.供者术后躯体健康质量稍差,精神健康较好,无抑郁和焦虑状态.结论 亲属活体供.肾者术后的心理状态较好,但临床工作者仍应适时采取心理干预,加强健康教育,同时社会应加强宣教,术后应给予供者良好的社会支持.     

Health-related quality of life for children with chronic kidney disease

Medical care advancements for children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) receiving hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or with a kidney transplant have resulted in relatively improved long-term patient survival compared with adult patients with CKD. Optimal care for the pediatric patient with CKD requires attention not only to medical management but also the psychosocial and developmental factors that will either ensure or prevent a pediatric patient's successful transition into adulthood. We review the range of issues that impact pediatric CKD patient health-related quality of life (HRQOL), the history of pediatric CKD patient HRQOL investigation, and the instruments currently available to assess HRQOL.     

Depression and Chronic Kidney Disease

Depression is the most common mental health disorder in patients with renal failure including those with pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD). The estimated prevalence of depression among patients with CKD is higher than in the general population and varies between 15 to 50% depending on the characteristics of the study sample and the instrument used to screen for depressive symptoms or diagnose a major depressive episode. In this patient population, depression has been associated with higher risk for hospitalization and shorter time to dialysis initiation. The role of screening, diagnosis and treatment for depression in patients with pre-dialysis CKD needs to be critically evaluated in prospective studies.     

Prospective psychosocial evaluation of related kidney donors: Indian perspective

With increasing acceptance of living organ transplantation and growing numbers of organ donors, it becomes important to look for any adverse outcomes in this population. Prospective psychosocial evaluation of living related donors and assessment of the outcome of donation process was done. We also tried to identify any risk factors associated with any adverse event. Between January 2003 and December 2003, 75 consecutive donors (mean age 42.8 +/- 11.6 years; M:F 54:21) were interviewed preoperatively and at 3 months postoperatively based on a 57-item questionnaire. Objective assessment of anxiety, depression, and social support was done with "modified Beck's depression inventory," "Speilberg's state and trait anxiety," and "social support" questionnaires. The majority (85.3%) of donors had volunteered for donation. There were no major depressive or anxiety disorders following donation. Though 21.3% donors perceived some negative impact on their health, none regretted the decision to donate and most (96%) would encourage organ donation. Prolonged donor hospitalization, persistent pain, poor recipient reciprocation, or recipient death were associated with a poor psychosocial outcome.     

Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with renal failure. Patients with chronic kidney disease have significant CVD, and carry a high cardiovascular burden by the time they commence renal replacement therapy (RRT). The severity of CVD that has been observed in dialysis patients lead to a growing body of research examining the pathogenesis and progression of CVD during the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) (ie, predialysis phase). Multiple factors are involved in the development of CVD in CKD. More importantly, critical and key factors seem to develop early in the course of CKD, and result in preventable worsening of CVD in this patient population. Anemia is common in patients with CKD, and has been shown to have an independent role in the genesis of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and subsequent CVD. Unfortunately, it is underdiagnosed and undertreated in patients with CKD. Early intervention, and better correction of anemia, seems to gain a great momentum in the prevention and management of CVD in CKD. Hypertension is another risk factor that has been targeted by the National Kidney Foundation Task Force on CVD in chronic kidney disease. This article reviews the different factors involved in the pathogenesis of CVD in CKD and the evidence supporting early and aggressive intervention.     

Improving the Uptake of Independent Dialysis using the Humanbecoming Theoretical Approach

Soaring healthcare costs, increasing rates of chronic illness, and an aging population have left Canada struggling to meet the growing demands for quality health care. Hospitals battle to cope with altering patient demand, higher costs, provincially imposed global budgets, fast developing technology, rigid rules, new drugs, and social inequalities that lead to poor health. Canadian population health trends have played an important role in examining innovation opportunities that can dictate terms for the effective re‐design of Canada's health system. Independent (home) dialysis is associated with cost savings and improved quality of life in comparison with hospital‐based hemodialysis treatment. Despite this, independent dialysis has failed to increase at the same rate as hospital‐based treatment for chronic kidney disease. One probable reason is the lack of healthcare providers to truly understand the patient experience of living with chronic kidney disease. Qualitative data have shown that patients living with chronic kidney disease desire independence and minimal impact to their quality of life. Parse's Humanbecoming theory has been widely accepted in nursing practice as a theoretical base in which to gain an understanding of the lived experience. The values and assumptions of the Humanbecoming theory are also congruent with patient‐centered care practice and transferable to all areas of healthcare practice and disciplines.     

Psychosocial predictors of non-compliance in haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients.

BACKGROUND: Non-compliance with prescribed therapy significantly impacts dialysis patient care and outcomes. The underlying psychosocial issues leading to non-compliance are not well understood, especially in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. METHODS: A multicentre cohort of 119 haemodialysis (HD) patients and 51 PD patients was studied. In-person interviews were conducted with patients and clinical and laboratory data were obtained from medical records. Missed and shortened dialysis treatments/sessions and excessive serum phosphate values provided indicators of non-compliance. Patients' perceived health status, perceived self-health care, depression, perceived control over future health, social support, and disease-specific perceived quality of life were measured, along with current smoking status. Associations of predictor variables with non-compliance indicators were examined in univariate and multivariable analyses. RESULTS: Approximately one-third of both HD and PD patients were non-compliant on at least one indicator. Logistic regression models identified a significant association between smoking and each non-compliance indicator. Patient age (younger) also predicted missed treatments. Perceived (negative) effects of kidney disease on daily life, and (decreased) perceived control over future health also predicted shortened treatments. No significant association was found between dialysis modality (HD vs PD) and non-compliance. CONCLUSION: Smoking, one marker of priority placed on health status, and intrusiveness/control issues should be addressed in intervention efforts to improve compliance in patients treated by HD and PD.     

Promoting functioning and well-being in older CKD patients: review of recent evidence

Osteoporosis, falls, sleep difficulty, cognitive impairment, and depressed mood are major clinical concerns in the geriatric population that are physiologically and psychologically based and are often interrelated. All of these issues have implications for patients’ daily functioning and quality of life (QOL). This review synthesizes recent evidence about these prominent issues in geriatric care and related implications for care of older patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Recent evidence about pre-dialysis and dialysis treatment strategies that may help to optimize management of older patients is also considered. Although elderly patients often report better psychosocial adjustment to dialysis than do younger patients, physical functioning and cognitive functioning losses challenge the QOL of many elderly persons. Early management of CKD and attention to anemia, consideration of the benefits of peritoneal dialysis compared with hemodialysis, and inclusion of some form of exercise or regular physical activity in routine care provide key opportunities to enhance the functioning and well-being of older patients.     

Quality of life for children with chronic kidney disease

Medical care advancements for children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) receiving hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or with a renal transplant have resulted in relatively improved long-term patient survival compared with adult patients with CKD. Optimal care for the pediatric patient with CKD requires attention not only to medical management, but also the psychosocial and developmental factors that either will ensure or prevent a pediatric patient's successful transition into adulthood. We review the range of issues that impact pediatric CKD patients' health-related quality of life (HRQOL), the history of pediatric CKD patients' HRQOL investigation, and the instruments currently available to assess HRQOL.     

Insomnia and its comorbidities in chronic kidney disease

Sleep disorders are among the factors that can reduce the quality of life in patients with chronic kidney disease. Chronic kidney disease patients could benefit from an accurate evaluation and treatment of insomnia because this sleep disorder is associated with a high persistence-relapse rate, poor physical health, and mental disease (anxiety, depression) both in terms of comorbidity and antecedent. A multilayer evaluation of insomnia is possible because of valid and reliable instruments (both objective and subjective). Furthermore, a rational etiologic model of insomnia allows better understanding and treatment as a result of effective cognitive-behavioral techniques.     

Cognitive function in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a growing public health problem. The incidence of kidney failure is rising in all age groups but particularly in older adults. Individuals in all stages of CKD are at higher risk for development of cognitive impairment and this may be a major determinant in their quality of life. Furthermore, cognitive impairment is associated with an increased risk of death in dialysis patients. Cerebrovascular disease is a strong risk factor for development of cognitive impairment and vascular disease is a more likely cause of cognitive impairment than Alzheimer's disease in patients with CKD. Both traditional and nontraditional vascular risk factors are more common in CKD and dialysis patients may also be at risk for cognitive impairment via nonvascular risk factors and the hemodialysis procedure itself. Unfortunately, because risk factors for cognitive impairment in CKD have not been thoroughly ascertained, evaluation of potential treatments has been limited. Given the high prevalence of cognitive impairment in all stages of CKD, additional studies are needed to evaluate potential risk factors and treatments in this vulnerable population.     

Still a reasonable goal: Targeting cholesterol in dialysis and advanced chronic kidney disease patients

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients have a high burden of cardiovascular disease. In the general population, lipid metabolism disorders, which cause the initiation and progression of atherosclerotic vascular changes, are major targets for preventive and therapeutic strategies in cardiovascular medicine. However, data from large cohort studies and from clinical trials suggest that the treatment guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention and therapy cannot uncritically be transferred from individuals with intact renal function to CKD patients. Thus, unlike in the general population, neither plasma levels of HDL‐cholesterol, nor the key parameter of HDL‐cholesterol function—that is, cholesterol efflux capacity—predicts future cardiovascular events. Therefore, HDL‐cholesterol should presently not be considered as therapeutic target in CKD patients. In contrast, lowering of LDL‐cholesterol has been shown to reduce cardiovascular events at least among nondialysis CKD patients. The cardiovascular benefit of targeting LDL‐cholesterol among dialysis CKD patients is less evident. We strongly believe that at least some subgroups of dialysis patients may profit from such treatment, particularly those with highest baseline LDL‐cholesterol. Finally, as CKD patients have been characterized to have rather high intestinal cholesterol absorption, and relatively low hepatic cholesterol synthesis, substituting combined statin/ezetimibe treatment for statin monotherapy may be of particular benefit for nephrologic patients.