Assessment for chronic kidney disease service in high-risk patients at community health clinics

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) poses significant public health concerns. Early identification and interventions can help prevent or slow progression to end-stage renal disease. OBJECTIVE: To characterize CKD in high-risk indigent patients in a primary care setting and evaluate opportunities for pharmacists to work collaboratively with physicians to improve medication use and CKD patient outcomes. METHODS: Medical records of 200 patients with diabetes mellitus and/or hypertension were reviewed by the clinical pharmacist. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (creatinine clearance [Cl(cr)]) and urinalysis were used to identify and stage CKD according to published guidelines. Glycosylated hemoglobin concentrations and blood pressures were recorded. The pharmacist evaluated medications for possible drug-related problems (DRPs), made therapeutic recommendations, and evaluated the acceptance rate by physicians. RESULTS: One hundred nineteen patients met inclusion criteria, and a total of 68.9% met CKD criteria: stage 1, 16.0%; stage 2, 20.2%; stage 3, 25.2%; stage 4, 1.7%; stage 5, 0.8%; and not stageable, 5.0%. A total of 381 DRPs were identified, averaging 3.2 (1.7) per patient (range 0-11). The number of DRPs correlated with Cl(cr) (r = -0.25; p = 0.007). Therapeutic recommendations included change of drug, dose and/or interval adjustment of the current drug, discontinuation of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, additional laboratory monitoring, meeting goal blood pressure and glycosylated hemoglobin, adding renoprotective drug and/or low-dose aspirin, and nephrologist referral. Fewer than half (40.9%) of the recommendations were accepted or accepted with modifications, and an approximately equal percentage were not accepted by the physicians. CONCLUSIONS: CKD prevalence was high among the patients evaluated here. New guidelines are available to assist in managing CKD ambulatory patients. Pharmacist collaboration with physicians may optimize CKD screening in high-risk patients and improve medication usage.     

慢性肾脏病基础上急性肾损伤的病因和预后分析——附38例报告

目的:探讨慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)基础上急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)的病因和预后的影响因素.方法:对38例CKD基础上的AKI患者按照RIFLE标准对AKI进行分层诊断,并对38例患者的病因、预后等临床资料进行数理分析.结果:38例中,符合R标准2例(5%)、I标准3例(8%)、F标准5例(13%),L标准11例(29%),E标准17例(45%);其中符合F、L、E标准33例,占87%.导致AKI最常见的病因是恶性高血压(32%)和严重感染(21%).CKD患者发生AKI后的血清肌酐较发生AKI前明显升高,GFR则明显降低(均为P＜0.01).需要肾脏替代治疗28例(74%),其中发生终末期肾脏病(end-stage renal disease,ESRD)21例,占55%;无需肾脏替代治疗7例(18%);死亡3例,病死率8%.多变量Logistic 回归分析显示,恶性高血压分别是CKD基础上的AKI患者需要肾脏替代治疗(r＝2.42,P＜0.05)和发生ESRD(r＝2.08,P＜0.05)的独立危险因素;而少尿、感染和CKD的基础病因与患者的肾脏预后无关 (P＞0.05).结论:恶性高血压和严重感染是CKD患者并发AKI的主要病因,恶性高血压是这类患者肾脏预后不良的独立危险因素,严格控制血压是预防CKD患者并发AKI和改善患者预后的关键措施之一.     

Is chronic kidney disease comparable to diabetes as a coronary artery disease risk factor?

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the known risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Though electrocardiograms (ECGs) have limited accuracy in determining the true prevalence of CHD, we wondered whether CKD and diabetes mellitus (DM) controlled for hypertension (HTN), had similar prevalences of ECG abnormalities that could reflect underlying coronary heart disease. METHOD: Data were collected for 5,942 men and women aged 30 to 69 years in the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS), a crosssectional phase of a large epidemiologic study first initiated in 1999. ECG findings of all subjects were coded according to Minnesota ECG coding criteria. The Whitehall criteria for abnormal ECG findings that could represent ischemia were utilized. Creatinine clearance (Crcl) was estimated using the Cockroft-Gault equation and diabetes was defined according to the American Diabetic Association (ADA) criteria. Subjects with moderate CKD and without DM were compared with the patients with DM without CKD. HTN prevalence was similar. The analysis was performed for all Whitehall ECG ischemia abnormalities combined, and separately for pathologic Q waves. RESULTS: In spite of an overall similar prevalence of smoking, and a lower incidence of dyslipidemia and HTN, moderate CKD patients had a higher prevalence of Whitehall criteria abnormal ECG findings compared with the patients with DM. Over 19% of patients with CKD had abnormal ECG findings while 14.7% of diabetic patients had abnormal ECGs (P = 0.02). The prevalence of Q waves was 11.5% in patients with CKD and 10.8% in patients with DM. In an age-matched subgroup of patients with DM and no CKD, the prevalence of ECG abnormalities was 19.3%, similar to the patients with moderate CKD and no DM (19.7%) (P = 0.9). The prevalence of pathologic Q waves in an age-matched group was 11.45%, compared with 11.5%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Moderate CKD is a major risk factor for the development of the Whitehall ECG criteria which have been associated with ischemic heart disease. The importance of CKD as a risk factor for ECG abnormalities is comparable with DM. Patients with moderate CKD probably are candidates for aggressive CHD risk modification.     

Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in a middle and old-aged population of Beijing

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) was epidemic worldwide. The prevalence of CKD indicators, including proteinuria, hematuria/uninfectious leukocyturia and reduced GFR, was investigated in the middle and old-aged population of Beijing Shijingshan district. METHODS: Subjects of 2310 aged > or =40 y were enrolled. Their health conditions were taken by questionnaires and physical check-ups. Spot urine albumin to creatinine ratio, spot urine dipstick and microscopy for urine red cell and leukocyte, and serum creatinine was determined. Using simplified Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study equation estimated GFR assessed renal function. The associations between age, gender, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension, and indicators of kidney damage were examined. RESULTS: Through the questionnaires, the history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and CKD were found in 28%, 47.1% and 3.6% of subjects, respectively. Albuminuria was detected in 8.4% of subjects, hematuria and uninfectious leukocyturia in 0.7%, and reduced GFR in 4.9%. Approximately 12.9% had at least 1 indicator of CKD. The known rate of CKD in the studied population was 7.1%. Age, diabetes mellitus, hyper fasting blood glucose and hypertension were independently associated with albuminuria; age, gender, hyper uric acid and albuminuria with reduced GFR. When proteinuria and reduced GFR were determined using spot urine dipstick protein > or =25 mg/dl and serum creatinine > or =133 micromol/l, the prevalence of proteinuria and reduced GFR were 4.7% and 0.8%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of CKD is common in middle and old-aged population of Beijing, especially in the elderly, but the known rate was relatively low. These findings highlight the clinical and public health importance of CKD.     

中晚期慢性肾脏病患者冠状动脉钙化的发生情况及影响因素分析

目的 探讨中晚期慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)患者冠状动脉钙化的发生情况及影响因素.方法对上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院的130例CKD 3～5期患者进行冠脉多层螺旋CT(multi-slice spiral computed tomography,MSCT)检查,测定冠脉钙化分数(calcification score,CaS),收集患者的临床资料和相关生化检查指标,分析冠脉钙化的发生情况及其影响因素.结果中晚期CKD患者冠脉钙化发生率较高(74/130,56.9%),腹膜透析[143.9(0,662.9)]和血液透析[393.8(1.8,1491.0)]患者的冠脉CaS显著高于非透析患者[0(0,231.53)](P＜0.01＝.根据冠脉CaS是否为0分组后发现,有冠脉钙化组的年龄、既往心血管疾病发生率、糖尿病发生率、透析龄、空腹血糖、钙磷乘积和高敏C反应蛋白 (high sensitive c-reactive protein,hsCRP)水平较无冠脉钙化组显著增高(P＜0.05＝.单因素相关分析显示冠脉CaS与患者的年龄(r=0.352,P＜0.01＝、空腹血糖( r=0.217,P＜0.05＝、透析龄(r= 0.472,P＜0.01＝、钙磷乘积(r=0.183,P ＜0.05＝和hsCRP(r=0.365,P＜0.01＝呈正相关.逐步多元线性回归分析显示年龄、透析龄和hsCRP水平是影响中晚期CKD患者冠脉钙化评分水平的独立危险因素( P＜0.05＝.结论中晚期CKD患者,特别是透析人群冠脉钙化发生率较高.年龄、透析龄和hsCRP水平与中晚期CKD 患者冠脉钙化发生密切相关.     

慢性肾脏病的单中心横断面流行病学研究

目的 调查单中心肾内科门诊慢性肾脏病(CKD)患者的基础状况,判断CKD患者肾功能下降的危险因素.方法 对门诊就诊的CKD患者进行为期9个月的前瞻性横断面调查.结果 共有780例CKD病例入选.前4位CKD的病因分别为原发性肾小球疾病(59.0%),高血压肾病(7.6%),狼疮肾炎(6.4%),糖尿病肾病(6.3%).病例平均年龄41.9岁.CKD各期的分布为CKD 1期47.8%、2期18.7%、3期14.0%、4期8.1%、5期11.4%.多因素回归提示年龄、蛋白尿、高血压与CKD患者的肾功能下降独立相关.结论 目前针对中国CKD患者最大规模的单中心横断面调查,有助于确定CKD患者的基本状况,为进一步纵向随访奠定基础.     

Metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease in a Chinese population aged 40 years and older

OBJECTIVE: To explore the relationship between metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in a study population from a developing country. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: The prevalence of metabolic syndrome (as most recently defined by the International Diabetes Federation) and CKD (defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate of < 60 mL/min per 1.73 m2 and/or albuminuria) was determined in 2310 study participants (age > or =40 years) from Beijing, China, between May 12 and December 7, 2004. The relationship between metabolic syndrome and CKD was then analyzed. RESULTS: Participants with metabolic syndrome had a higher prevalence of CKD (15.4% vs 8.3%; P<.001) than those without the syndrome. As the number of metabolic syndrome traits increased, so did the prevalence of CKD. Strong unadjusted and adjusted associations were observed between metabolic syndrome and CKD. For participants without hypertension and diabetes, metabolic syndrome was also associated with CKD (odds ratio, 2.03; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-3.94). CONCLUSIONS: In these 2310 Chinese study participants aged 40 years and older, metabolic syndrome was associated with CKD.     

慢性肾脏病5期非透析糖尿病与非糖尿病患者血管钙化情况的比较

目的观察慢性肾脏病（CKD5）期非透析的糖尿病和非糖尿病患者血管钙化的发生情况,探讨糖尿病在CKD患者血管钙化中所扮演的角色。方法收集入选CKD5期非透析的糖尿病和非糖尿病患者人口学及临床资料,通过腹部、骨盆、手部X线平片进行血管钙化的定量测量,检测血压、相关血生化指标和全段甲状旁腺素（iPTH）水平,进行相关分析。结果入选68例CKD5期非透析患者,其中糖尿病患者32例、非糖尿病患者36例。X线平片显示42.6%（29/68例）有不同程度、不同部位的血管钙化,存在血管钙化的患者中82.8%有腹主动脉钙化,37.9%存在中小动脉（包括髂动脉、股动脉、桡动脉、手指动脉）钙化。糖尿病CKD患者血管钙化发生率及钙化程度明显高于非糖尿病患者,且腹主动脉及中、小动脉钙化发生率均明显高于非糖尿病患者（P〈0.05）。血管钙化的Logistic回归显示年龄和糖尿病是CKD5期非透析患者血管钙化的独立危险因素。结论与非糖尿病患者相比,患有糖尿病的CKD5期非透析患者各部位存在较高的血管钙化发生率及较重的血管钙化程度。糖尿病在CKD患者血管钙化中扮演了重要角色。     

慢性肾脏病患者虚弱现状的系统评价

目的了解慢性肾脏病(Chronic kidney disease,CKD)患者的虚弱现状及影响因素。方法检索中国知网、维普、万方、Pubmed、CINAHL、Embase数据库,深入阅读文献,采用单个率的Meta分析评价文献。结果纳入9篇文献,CKD患者虚弱的发生率在2.8%~73%,透析CKD患者的虚弱发生率为44%。虚弱与CKD密切相关,虚弱程度也与肾脏损伤程度有关。同时,性别、年龄、CKD分期、eGFR、肥胖、高血压、透析、心理状况等均被确立为虚弱的危险因素。结论 CKD患者更易虚弱,导致虚弱的原因多种多样,我国CKD患者虚弱现状及综合护理干预的研究有待加强。     

567例新发脑卒中慢性肾脏病流行病学特点

目的了解新发脑卒中患者慢性肾脏病（CKD）流行病学特点,并探讨与脑卒中发生的关系。方法回顾性分析2006年5月至2008年4月东南大学附属中大医院神经内科收治的新发脑卒中567例,观察患者性别、年龄、血压和糖尿病史、吸烟史、血压、血常规、尿常规、生化、凝血功能、同型半胱氨酸、头颅CT或MRI、神经功能评分等指标,参照美国全国肾脏基金会改善肾脏疾病预后和生存质量的倡议（NKF—K／DOQI）指南标准定义CKD,以简化肾脏疾病饮食调整研究（MDRD）公式计算估计肾小球滤过率（eGFR）。结果本组资料中,新发脑卒中CKD患病率为30．3％（172／567）,CKD1～5期所占比例分别为3．7％（21／567）、8．1％（46／567）、15．5％（88／567）、1．9％（11／567）和1．1％（6／567）;非CKD患者占69．7％（395／567）。65岁以上老年新发脑卒中患者为357例,其CKD患病率为37．0％（132／357）,而中青年新发脑卒中患者为210例,CKD患病率为19．1％（40／210）,差异有统计学意义（X^2=20．108,P〈0．001）;19．6％（111／567）新发脑卒中患者eGFR小于60m1．min^-1·1．73m。高血压、原发性肾小球疾病、糖尿病是引起CKD的主要病因,分别占CKD的33．7％（58／172）、16．3％（28／172）、9．9％（17／172）。logistic回归分析提示：高尿酸血症（OR=6．626,95％CI=3．020～14．536）、高同型半胱氨酸血症（OR=2．839,95％CI：1．434～5．618）、吸烟（OR=2．685,95％CI=1．565～4．657）、糖尿病病程（OR=2．375,95％CI=1．602～3．520）、年龄（OR=1．761,95％CI=1．386～2．238）及收缩压增高（OR=1．753,95％CI=1．359～2．262）是CKD的主要危险因素。CKD患者中,出血性脑卒中患病率为18．6％（32／172）,非CKD患者为9．9％（39／395）,差异有统计学意义（P=0．004）。CKD患者中、重度神经功能障碍比例高     

Chronic Kidney Disease Testing Among At-Risk Adults in the U.S. Remains Low: Real-World Evidence From a National Laboratory Database

OBJECTIVEAn estimated 37 million Americans have chronic kidney disease (CKD). Nearly 90% do not know about their condition because of low awareness about the importance of CKD testing and diagnosis among practitioners and people at risk for CKD. This study uses data from a national clinical laboratory to identify guideline-recommended CKD testing rates across the U.S.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSPatients with Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings (Labcorp) testing between 2013 and 2019 were defined as at risk for CKD if they had any testing ordered with diagnosis codes for diabetes and/or hypertension. Guideline-concordant CKD assessment was defined by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (uACR) testing within the study year.RESULTSWe identified 28,295,982 at-risk patients (mean age 60.6 ± 14.8 years; 53.6% women): 16.2% had diabetes, 63.8% had hypertension, and 20.1% had both comorbidities. Of these, 80.3% did not receive guideline-concordant assessment during the study period. Furthermore, only 21.0% had uACR testing versus 89.6% with eGFR. CKD assessment occurred at least once in 28.7% of patients with diabetes, 10.5% of patients with hypertension, and 41.4% of patients with both conditions. In a state-by-state comparison, annual testing rates ranged from 5 to 30%. The nationwide rate increased modestly each year between 2013 and 2018 (from 10.7% to 15.2%).CONCLUSIONSDespite guideline recommendations, testing for CKD with uACR and eGFR in U.S. adults with diabetes and hypertension is low in routine clinical care. These data highlight the need for strategies to improve routine CKD assessment nationwide.     

Risk factors and pathogenetic mechanisms of left ventricular hypertrophy in progressive chronic kidney disease and after transplantation of the kidney

AIM: To specify the trend in the incidence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) at a predialysis stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the course of its progression from stage III to stage V and after transplantation of the kidney (TK); to study correlations between homeostatic disorders caused by CKD progression and myocardial remodeling; to define the role of some hemodynamic and nonhemodynamic factors in formation of LVH. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study enrolled 128 patients (58 males and 70 females, age 18-55 years, mean age 42 +/- 11 years) at a predialysis stage of CKD (group 1) and 225 recipients of renal allotransplant--RRA (group 2, 140 males and 85 females, age 18-69 years, mean age 43 +/- 12 years). General clinical examination, biochemical and immunological blood tests, echocardiography were made. RESULTS: At a predialysis stage of CKD, LVH was diagnosed in 56% patients. Incidence of LVH was directly related with age of the patients (p = 0.001), blood pressure (p < 0.001), duration of arterial hypertension (p = 0.004), severity of anemia (p = 0.017), the level of C-reactive protein (p = 0.003), blood phosphorus concentration and inversely correlated with glomerular filtration rate--GFR (p = < 0.001), albumin level (p = 0.023) and blood Ca (p < 0.001). LVH was followed up for 12 months in 35 patients with predialysis CKD. Factors of LVH progression and factors hindering its regression were systolic blood pressure, Hb and Ca in the blood. In group 2 of RRA incidence of LVH was 53%. Significant factors of LVH risk after transplantation were age (p = 0.002), hypertension (p = 0.005) and anemia (p = 0.04). Moreover, LVH closely correlated with proteinuria (p < 0.03), transplant dysfunction (p = 0.002) and posttransplantation ischemic heart disease (p < 0.037). Changes in LVH were analysed in 30 RRA. Frequency of LVH decreased for 2 years after transplantation (from 56 to 32%) but 36-60 and more months after transplantation it increased (46 and 64%, respectively). Transplant dysfunction was the leading factor hindering LVH regression after transplantation. CONCLUSION: The same mechanisms are involved in LVH pathogenesis after transplantation and at a predialysis stage of CKD. The significance of initial renal lesion signs--minimal proteinuria and hypercreatininemia--was higher after renal transplantation than in patients with CKD.     

Causes and characteristics of CKD

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common in Japan and worldwide. The estimated prevalence of CKD in Japanese adults was 10.6% in 2005, based on the survey conducted by the Japanese Society of Nephrology. The most common risk factors for CKD include diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Major outcomes of CKD include progression to kidney failure and increased risk for cardiovascular disease. CKD is usually silent until its late stages, thus many patients with CKD are detected only shortly before the onset of symptomatic kidney failure, when there are few opportunities to prevent adverse outcomes. Earlier detection allows for more time for evaluation and treatment but requires explicit testing strategies for asymptomatic individuals at increased risk. Understanding the strengths and limitations of CKD testing and risk factors of CKD is critical for appropriate management of CKD patients. The goal of this paper is to discuss CKD testing and early detection in clinical practice and its application to public health initiatives, with attention to limitations and appropriate interpretation.     

基于CLHLS项目2018年横断面数据的高龄人群高血压、糖尿病患病率及相关因素研究

目的 分析中国高龄人群高血压、糖尿病患病情况以及高血压合并糖尿病的相关因素.方法 获取中国老年健康影响因素跟踪调查(CLHLS)2018年横断面数据,计算高血压、糖尿病患病率及服药治疗率,分析患病率及服药治疗率的性别、年龄差异,并采用有序多结局Logistic回归分析的比值比(OR)及其95％置信区间(95％CI)评估...     

High prevalence of diabetes in Adana, a southern province of Turkey

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of diabetes and glucose intolerance and their relationship with risk factors in Adana, a southern province of Turkey, where risk factors are more prominent, probably because of social and economic reasons. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The study population included 1637 randomly selected adults aged 20-79 years. Diagnosis of diabetes was based on plasma glucose values using the 1999 diagnostic criteria recommended by the World Health Organization. RESULTS: The crude prevalence of diabetes was 12.9% in men and 10.9% in women (P = 0.207). Total prevalence of diabetes was 11.6%. The screening process identified previously undiagnosed diabetes in 4.2% of individuals and impaired glucose homeostasis (consisting of impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose) in an additional 4.3% of subjects. The prevalence of hypertension was 26.4% among men and 36.6% among women (P < 0.0001). Total prevalence of hypertension was 32.9%, and prevalence of obesity was 43.4%. Age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, hypertension, family history of diabetes, and triglycerides were independently associated with diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of diabetes in Adana is higher than expected in both urban and rural areas. Obesity and hypertension also seem to be common metabolic disorders in this area. Age, hypertension, obesity, high triglyceride level, and family history of diabetes are independently associated with diabetes. Therefore, primary prevention through lifestyle modifications may have a critical role in the control of diabetes.     

Current chronic kidney disease practice patterns in the UK: a national survey

BACKGROUND: There is an increasing focus on improving the detection and management of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Data on CKD prevalence based on population sampling are now available, but there are few data about CKD patients attending nephrology services or how such services are organized. AIM: To survey services for CKD patients nationally. METHODS: A pre-piloted questionnaire was sent to all 72 renal units in the UK, referring to the situation in June 2004. RESULTS: Seventy units (97%) responded. The median ratio of prevalent CKD patients/prevalent renal replacement therapy (RRT) patients in the 25 units with data was 3.7 (IQR 2.7-5.7) and the median ratio of CKD stage 4 and 5 patients/prevalent RRT patients was 0.6 (IQR 0.4-1.1). This gives an estimated 140 000 CKD patients under the care of UK nephrologists, with 23 000 at CKD stage 4 or 5 (excluding those on RRT). Very few units had a full complement of the recommended multi-skilled renal team. Counsellors and psychologist were the most common perceived shortages. Of 70 responding units, 50 (74%) were using low clearance clinics for management of advanced CKD patients. Elective dialysis access services often had long delays, with median waiting time for vascular access ranging between 1 and 36 weeks, and for Tenchkoff catheter, between 0 and 12 weeks. DISCUSSION: CKD patients are a significant workload for UK nephrologists. Current provision of service is variable, and services need to be re-designed to cope with the expected future increase of referral of CKD patients.     

Trends in diabetes, high cholesterol, and hypertension in chronic kidney disease among U.S. adults: 1988-1994 to 1999-2004

OBJECTIVE—The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) increased among U.S. adults from 1988–1994 to 1999–2004. We sought to explore the importance of trends in risk factors for CKD over timeRESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—The prevalence of cigarette smoking, obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes among U.S. adults with stage 3 CKD (estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 ml/min per 1.73 m²) and albuminuria (urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥30 mg/g), separately, were determined for 1988–1994 and 1999–2004 using data from serial National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. The prevalence ratios (PRs) for stage 3 CKD and albuminuria by the presence of these risk factors were compared across survey periods.RESULTS—The PR for CKD declined between 1988–1994 and 1999–2004 for obesity (PR 1.51 and 1.14 for 1988–1994 and 1999–2004, respectively; P for change = 0.010), hypertension (PR 2.60 and 1.70; P for change = 0.005), and high cholesterol (PR 1.58 and 1.20; P for change = 0.028). However, for diagnosed diabetes, the PR remained unchanged (1.64 and 1.62; P for change = 0.898). Similar results were observed for undiagnosed diabetes (PR of CKD 1.38 and 1.50; P for change = 0.373). The association of cigarette smoking was similar in each time period. Besides obesity, for which the association remained stable over time, similar patterns were observed for the PR of albuminuria.CONCLUSIONS—In terms of CKD, improvements in hypertension and high cholesterol management have been offset by both diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes. Further increases in CKD may occur if diabetes continues to increase.Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a common condition, affecting a substantial proportion of adults in the U.S. and worldwide (1). A recent analysis documented a marked increase in CKD prevalence among U.S. adults over the past decade (2). Due to its impact on quality of life, cardiovascular disease (CVD) incidence, and mortality, CKD is an important public health challenge (3–5).Obesity, smoking, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes are key risk factors for CKD (6–9). Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension has improved over the past several decades (10,11). Significant reductions in mean cholesterol levels have occurred as well (12), likely due to dietary changes and increasing usage of cholesterol-lowering medications. However, the prevalence and incidence of diabetes continue to increase (13–16), fueled by marked increases in obesity (17).We hypothesized that CKD related to hypertension and high cholesterol has decreased over time, likely due to improvements in the management of these conditions. However, given an ongoing increase in the prevalence of diabetes without significant improvements in its treatment (18), we further hypothesized that CKD related to diabetes has increased. We tested these hypotheses by assessing trends in the association of cigarette smoking, obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes with CKD and albuminuria between 1988–1994 and 1999–2004 using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III and NHANES 1999–2004.     

江阴市脑出血住院患者慢性肾脏病发病情况调查

目的调查江阴市脑出血住院患者的慢性肾脏病（CKD）发病情况及危险因素。方法收集江阴市人民医院神经内科2007年1月至2009年12月间住院的1 430例脑出血患者的临床资料,其中资料完整者932例,男602例,女330例,平均年龄（63.8±12.0）岁。所有患者均分别经脑CT和（或）磁共振成像（MRI）确诊。观察肾脏损伤指标,包括血清肌酐（SCr）及尿常规和相关危险因素（血压、烟酒史、心脏病史、脑卒中部位、空腹血糖、血脂、凝血功能、血常规等）。采用简化的改良肾脏病膳食研究（MDRD）公式估算肾小球滤过率（GFR）,并根据肾脏疾病生存质量指导（K/DOQI）指南进行CKD分期。结果蛋白尿119例（12.8%）,血尿189例（20.3%）,SCr〉105μmol/L者39例（4.2%）,eGFR≤60 ml.min-1.（1.73 m2）-1者30例（3.2%）。CKD为251例,患病率为26.9%;CKD 1~5期分别占该人群的65.7%、22.3%、9.2%、1.6%与1.2%;本组病例中,年龄≥65岁者CKD患病率为27.3%,eGFR≤60 ml.min-1.（1.73 m2）-1的比例为3.8%。logistic回归分析脑梗死患者CKD危险因素为性别（OR=1.443,P〈0.05）、糖尿病（OR=1.637,P〈0.01）、饮酒（OR=0.673,P〈0.05）、高甘油三酯（OR=0.628,P〈0.05）、高尿酸（OR=2.730,P〈0.01）、低血红细胞比容（OR=1.985,P〈0.05）。结论江阴地区脑出血住院患者中CKD患病率26.9%,明显高于一般人群,应重视在脑出血患者中的CKD调查,早期预防和积极干预CKD,以改善患者预后。     

Antidiabetic medication use and prevalence of chronic kidney disease among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the United States

Objectives: The aims of this study were to estimate the proportion of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) in the United States with different stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and to describe glycemic control and antidiabetic drug use among them.Methods: Using data from the Fourth National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES IV) for the years 1999 through 2004, we performed a crosssectional analysis of patients with type 2 DM aged ≥20 years at the time of the survey interview. CKD stages were categorized according to the classification system established by the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative. Anti-diabetic medication use among these patients was described using self-reported survey responses as well as survey medication files.Results: A total of 1462 patients with type 2 DM were included in the analysis. Men and women constituted 48.3% and 51.7% of the study sample, respectively; 15.6% received a DM diagnosis <2 years ago, and 36.2% received their diagnosis >10 years ago. CKD was present in 39.7% of patients with DM. Mean (SE) glycosylated hemoglobin was lower in more advanced CKD stages, from stage 1 (8.35% [0.23%]) to combined stages 4 and 5 (6.63% [0.15%]). Based on the medication file data, the proportion of patients with CKD using 1 antidiabetic medication was higher as CKD progressed, from 36.3% at stage 1 to 62.9% at stages 4 and 5 (P = 0.007). By self-report, the proportion of patients with CKD using insulin alone was 6.7% at stage 1 and 38.8% at stages 4 and 5 (P < 0.001). The proportion of patients using oral antidiabetic agents alone was 69.0% at stage 1 and 43.4% at stages 4 and 5 (P < 0.001).Conclusions: Our results indicate that 39.7% of adult patients with type 2 DM in the United States had some degree of CKD, as measured in NHANES IV for the years 1999 through 2004. This finding reinforces the need to screen patients with type 2 DM for CKD and to prevent the cascade of events leading to nephropathy by implementing adequate glycemic and blood pressure controls, especially in the early stages of CKD. Our data also reinforce the need for developing more oral antidiabetic therapies for patients with advanced CKD and type 2 DM, because treatment options for this group are limited.