Implementation and Use of the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment at US Schools of Pharmacy

Objective. To describe how schools and colleges of pharmacy use the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) in relation to student assessment and curricular feedback.Methods. A survey was distributed to all programs that have implemented the PCOA. The survey was designed to assess 3 domains regarding the use of the PCOA: rationale for use, logistics of administration, and performance data review and distribution.Results. A 79% response rate (41/52) was obtained. The mix of responses was 93% current PCOA users and 7% past users. The most common reasons for PCOA use were for programmatic assessment and benchmarking. The examination was most frequently administered during the P3 year, with minimal stakes attached to performance. Significant differences in responses based on public vs private institution were seen with respect to length of accreditation of current PCOA users, messaging to students regarding performance, inclusion of results in student advising, and distribution of results to stakeholders.Conclusion. Programs were using the PCOA primarily as an assessment in the P3 year for reasons related to programmatic and curricular assessment. Some differences existed between public and private institutional PCOA use and examination-related processes and results distribution.     

Global Education Implications of the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination

Although the Foreign Pharmacy Graduate Equivalency Examination (FPGEE) is not intended to measure educational outcomes or institutional effectiveness, it may be a reliable and valid criterion to assess the quality or success of international pharmacy programs. This comprehensive review describes the evolution and historical milestones of the FPGEE, along with trends in structure, administration, and passing rates, and the impact of country of origin on participant performance. Similarities between the FPGEE and the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) are also explored. This paper aims to provide a global prospective and insight for foreign academic institutions into parameters for evaluating their students'' educational capabilities.     

Pharmacy curriculum outcomes assessment for individual student assessment and curricular evaluation

The Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) is a standardized examination for assessing academic progress of pharmacy students. Although no other national benchmarking tool is available on a national level, the PCOA has not been adopted by all colleges and schools of pharmacy. Palm Beach Atlantic University (PBAU) compared 2008-2010 PCOA results of its P1, P2, and P3 students to their current grade point average (GPA) and to results of a national cohort. The reliability coefficient of PCOA was 0.91, 0.90, and 0.93 for the 3 years, respectively. PBAU results showed a positive correlation between GPA and PCOA scale score. A comparison of subtopic results helped to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. PCOA provides useful comparative data that can facilitate individual student assessment as well as programmatic evaluation. There are no other standardized assessment tools available. Despite limitations, PCOA warrants consideration by colleges and schools of pharmacy. Expanded participation could enhance its utility as a meaningful benchmark.     

A case-based toxicology elective course to enhance student learning in pharmacotherapy

Objective. To assess the impact of a case-based toxicology elective course on student learning in related required courses and student performance on the Pharmacy Curriculum Outcomes Assessment (PCOA) examination.Design. A case-based clinical toxicology elective course that contained topics from 2 required courses, Pharmacology III and Pharmacotherapy II, was offered in the spring 2009 to second- and third-year pharmacy students.Assessment. Scores on the Toxicology subsection of the PCOA of students enrolled in the elective were higher than those of students not enrolled (91.3% ± 4.1 vs. 67.2% ± 5.7). Enrollment in the elective was related to increased examination scores among Pharmacotherapy II students (89.5% ± 2.0 vs. 83.9% ± 1.8). Students indicated on course survey instruments that they were satisfied with the new elective offering.Conclusions. A toxicology elective provided a clinically relevant, active-learning experience for pharmacy students that addressed a curricular need within the college and increased examination scores.     

对药学专业实践教学的思考

随着我国药学学科的发展,教学水平也在不断提高。然而重理论、轻实践的现状却一直存在,造成学生专业综合素质的缺失,也成为我国药学教育发展的瓶颈。如何培养药学生的实践能力,加强实践教学,是药学教育的一个长期而艰巨的历史任务。对我国药学专业实践教学的现状进行深入解析,针对现状提出相应的解决方案。     

医学院校中的药学专业课程设置的探索与实践

医学院校中的药学专业依托医学这个大背景,结合本身优势与社会需要,培养具有创新精神和实践科研能力的复合型人才,本文在课程设置、教学模式以及师资力量等方面进行有益的探索和实践。     

关于临床药学人才培养课程设置的探讨

随着我国经济的迅速发展和医疗体制改革的深入,临床药师的需求将不断增长。应在我国的主要医药高等院校建立完善的临床药学本科教育体系,建立安全、合理用药的人才体系。临床药学本科的课程应包括生物医学、药学、临床医学和社会管理科学等几方面的内容,教学中应加强临床医药学和医药信息检索知识的学习,并注重临床药学实践、与人沟通能力和获取新知识能力的培养,以使其能适应将来临床药师工作的需要。     

A Scoping Review of Antimicrobial Stewardship Teaching in Pharmacy Education Curricula

Objective. To conduct a scoping review of the existing literature to identify published studies on innovative teaching and assessment practices for antimicrobial stewardship in the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum and to provide a foundation for future scholarly research in this important area.Findings. Seven studies were found that met the inclusion criteria. Two of the studies explored the extent, content, and methods of delivery of antimicrobial stewardship, four studies described elective courses in antimicrobial stewardship, and one study described an interprofessional module. Most studies were conducted in the United States. Several pharmacy schools in the UK and the US incorporated antimicrobial stewardship teaching into their curriculum. Learning objectives for the elective courses focused on guidelines issued by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), antimicrobial stewardship literature appraisal and principal application. The most used teaching strategy was didactic lectures, followed by case studies. Active-learning approaches like simulators, problem-based learning, and presentations were also used but to a lesser extent.Summary. Antimicrobial stewardship curricular reform may be influenced by the timing of the course, teaching approaches, and performance assessment of students. Antimicrobial stewardship learning should be a required of all pharmacy students. The scarcity of scholarly activity in the teaching of and assessment of learning in antimicrobial stewardship suggests that curricular planning should be guided by national or international organizations to ensure pharmacy students learn such important material.     

A course assessment process for curricular quality improvement

Objective. To describe a systematic assessment process that provides continuous improvement in the curriculum, supports faculty development, and enhances student learning outcomes.Design. Teams of faculty members, students, and course instructors conducted course assessments, which consisted of monitoring the delivered instruction for agreement with planned content and course integration within the curriculum, and providing ongoing feedback for improving course content, course management, faculty teaching, and student learning experiences.Assessment. Areas needing improvement were identified and appropriate changes were made. Improvements were achieved in course policy standardization, course integration within the curriculum, faculty teaching behaviors, and student experiences.Conclusion. The curriculum assessment plan provides a structured method of monitoring and delivering continuous quality improvement.     

A Curriculum Review and Mapping Process Supported by an Electronic Database System

Curriculum mapping and review is now an expected continuous quality improvement initiative of pharmacy professional programs. Effectively implementing and sustaining this expectation can be a challenge to institutions of higher education and requires dedicated faculty members, a systematic approach, creativity, and—perhaps most importantly—demonstrated leadership at all levels of the institution. To address its specific situation and needs, the University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy implemented a peer review process of ongoing curriculum mapping and evaluation. An electronic Pharmacy Curriculum Management System (PCMS) was developed to support faculty efforts to manage curricular data, monitor program outcomes, and improve communications to its stakeholders on 2 campuses and across the state.     

三年制高职药学专业课程设置探究

简述三年制高职药学专业课程设置的构建基础,重点剖析三年制高职药学专业课程设置的主要特点,旨在探索构建科学合理、适应人才市场需求的药学专业课程设置体系。     

药学类专业设置与课程教育体系关联性研究

通过对药学类专业教育现状、专业设置及培养目标进行分析,提出主要存在的问题和解决问题的对策。阐明在社会主义市场经济环境中,药学类专业设置与课程教育体系建立应遵循＂同公共、类基础、别专基、异专业＂的原则。在遵循一般的教育规律条件下,药学类专业按快速、高效、超前、连续、协调、健康、有序的正确轨道分化发展,建立特色鲜明的课程教育体系。     

A Curriculum Crosswalk of the Core Entrustable Professional Activities for New Pharmacy Graduates

Objective. To cross reference the core entrustable professional activities (EPAs) to a complete set of educational guidance documents for the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum to create a map for pharmacy educators.Methods. The Mapping EPAs Task Force consisted of nine members who first worked independently and then together in small working groups to map five assigned educational guidance documents (eg, Center for the Advancement of Pharmacy Education [CAPE] Outcomes, Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education [ACPE] Standards 1-4, and the Essential Elements for Core Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences [APPEs]) to the Core Entrustable Professional Activities for New Pharmacy Graduates. Four working groups completed the mapping process during phases 1 and 2, which was followed by an independent quality assurance review and consensus in phase 3.Results. All 15 core EPA statements were mapped to one or more of the educational documents. One item from the CAPE Outcomes could not be mapped to a core EPA statement. The first five EPA statements mapped directly to the five elements of the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process: collect, assess, plan, implement, and follow-up: monitor and evaluate.Conclusion. This comprehensive EPA map is the first curriculum crosswalk that encompasses a complete set of educational guidance documents including the Essential Elements for Core APPEs for the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum. If adopted by the Academy, this curriculum crosswalk will provide pharmacy schools with a common interpretation of important educational guidance documents; serve as the foundation for curricular development, revision, and assessment; and ensure student pharmacists are prepared to enter the pharmacy profession.     

Research skills training for the Doctor of Pharmacy in US Schools of Pharmacy: A descriptive study

Objectives As the practice of pharmacy grows increasingly complex, graduates are expected to possess a comprehensive set of skills enabling them to provide optimal patient care. Thus, research skills are becoming increasingly valuable and a necessary part of pharmacist training globally. However, training opportunities for improving research skills have not been well explored in the literature. This study examines how research skills are currently being offered in various Doctor of Pharmacy curricula in US Schools of Pharmacy. Methods A five‐question survey was e‐mailed to key individuals at 95 Colleges of Pharmacy in the USA and Puerto Rico. Responses were aggregated and then stratified by research project requirements, as well as by school type (public or private; Carnegie Foundation classification). Key findings Seventy‐nine respondents provided usable surveys for an 83% response rate. Respondents encompassed a representative population of school types. Although most schools do not require completion of a research project (75%), the majority of research skills listed were taught in various forms in over half of the responding institutions. There did not appear to be a significant distinction in research skills training provided based upon school type. However, schools requiring students to complete a research project in order to graduate provided the most comprehensive research skills training. Conclusions Research skills training has greatly increased over the past 10 years. However, more study needs to be done in a number of areas, including determining the most effective way to offer research skills training, determining its post‐graduate impact and determining its overall effect on the profession of pharmacy.     

A Capstone Course with a Comprehensive and Integrated Review of the Pharmacy Curriculum and Student Assessment as a Preparation for Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective. To create a capstone course that provides a comprehensive and integrated review of the pharmacy curriculum with a broad range of assessment tools to evaluate student knowledge and skills as a final preparation prior to beginning fourth-year advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).Design. The capstone course was a 4 credit-hour, case-based course. Eight comprehensive cases were assigned to students over the course of the term. The cases were designed to mimic complex clinical scenarios that students were likely to encounter during an APPE. Students were required to prepare a written and oral presentation for each case and were assessed on material covered during the cases. Faculty members presented weekly reviews on selected topics such as calculations, pharmacokinetics, and pharmaceutical compounding. At the end of the course, students took an observed structured clinical examination (OSCE), which simulated the Georgia Board of Pharmacy Practical Examination, and a comprehensive examination designed to mimic the NAPLEX (North American Pharmacy Licensure Examination).Assessment. Evaluation of student outcomes was based on written and verbal presentations of the cases, multiple-choice examinations, a short-answer calculations examination, an “Errors and Omissions” examination, a standardized patient encounter, and pharmaceutical compounding examinations. Ninety-five percent of students successfully passed the course on their first attempt. Student feedback indicated satisfaction with the depth, breadth, and organization of material covered and felt that the course helped prepare them for APPEs.Conclusion. The culminating experience of the capstone course gave students a thorough review of practical, clinical, and communication skills and provided faculty members with feedback regarding the curriculum through robust assessment.     

Outcomes from global adult outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy programmes: A review of the last decade

Outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) has become a global treatment modality since its advent in 1974. The multicentre outcome registries that were employed at the turn of the century to demonstrate the benefits and challenges in this treatment setting have been discontinued. In the intervening years, trends in clinical, patient satisfaction, programmatic and economic outcomes have been shown in sporadic cohort analyses from around the globe. These outcomes are generally reassuring and compare well with previous registry data. However, meaningful comparison of a range of key outcomes is hampered by a lack of uniformity to outcome reporting. In addition to ‘whole programme’ outcome reports, several studies have detailed real-world outcomes in OPAT pertaining to specific conditions and populations. This work has shown how prospective data collection in the OPAT setting can yield valuable insights into the effectiveness and safety of the management of many conditions, such as osteoarticular infection and endocarditis, in a diverse range of populations and increasingly from different countries. Enhanced and perhaps more uniform outcome surveillance in this fashion now constitutes good practice and will enable the benefits and risks of this treatment modality to be shared both in novel and established OPAT arenas.     

Students' Health-Related Quality of Life Across the Preclinical Pharmacy Curriculum

Objectives

To examine health related quality of life (HRQOL), perceived stress, and coping skills in the 3 preclinical years of a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum.

Methods

Health-related quality of life, perceived stress, and coping strategies were measured using the Short Form-36, Perceived Stress Scale, and Brief COPE. Average annual scores were compared across curriculum years.

Results

Two hundred thirteen students enrolled in the study. Entering students had physical and mental HRQOL scores that were similar to age-adjusted US norms. Mental HRQOL scores were significantly lower and stress significantly higher during the second year of the PharmD curriculum compared to the first year (p < 0.05). Lower mental HRQOL scores were associated with increased stress and use of maladaptive coping skills in all years of the curriculum.

Conclusion

Increased stress and reduced mental HRQOL were observed across the first 3 years of a PharmD curriculum. Methods to reduce stress and/or use of maladaptive coping skills are needed to improve students'' HRQOL throughout the pharmacy curriculum.     

A Systematic Review of Palliative Care Content in the Doctor of Pharmacy Curriculum

Objective. To describe the methods of teaching and evaluating palliative care experiences for pharmacy students.Findings. A literature search retrieved 971 reports, from which 26 studies met all of study criteria. Educational interventions concerning palliative care included didactic courses, flipped classrooms, advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs), workshops, and seminars. Total direct hours of education in palliative care ranged from 1-200. Seven (27%) focused experiences were reported as required, while nine (35%) were reported as elective. The majority (n=14, 54%) of studies measured pharmacy students’ confidence, attitudes, or perceptions as the main outcome, and of those most studies reported an improvement. Five (19%) studies reported on interprofessional experiences in palliative care conducted in the United States, and four (15%) studies reported on similar experiences conducted outside the United States. When reported, most experiences were developed for students to complete prior to beginning their APPE year. All of the included studies used a non-randomized design.Summary. This review suggests a palliative care experience for pharmacy students should be interprofessional, occur during the year prior to APPEs, and measure skills-based outcomes.