Neural tube defects and impaired neural progenitor cell proliferation in Gβ1‐deficient mice

Heterotrimeric G proteins are well known for their roles in signal transduction downstream of G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), and both Gα subunits and tightly associated Gβγ subunits regulate downstream effector molecules. Compared to Gα subunits, the physiological roles of individual Gβ and Gγ subunits are poorly understood. In this study, we generated mice deficient in the Gβ1 gene and found that Gβ1 is required for neural tube closure, neural progenitor cell proliferation, and neonatal development. About 40% Gβ1^?/? embryos developed neural tube defects (NTDs) and abnormal actin organization was observed in the basal side of neuroepithelium. In addition, Gβ1^?/? embryos without NTDs showed microencephaly and died within 2 days after birth. GPCR agonist‐induced ERK phosphorylation, cell proliferation, and cell spreading, which were all found to be regulated by Gαi and Gβγ signaling, were abnormal in Gβ1^?/? neural progenitor cells. These data indicate that Gβ1 is required for normal embryonic neurogenesis. Developmental Dynamics 239:1089–1101, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Zebrafish and mouse TASK-2 K+ channels are inhibited by increased CO2 and intracellular acidification

TASK-2 is a K_2P K⁺ channel considered as a candidate to mediate CO₂ sensing in central chemosensory neurons in mouse. Neuroepithelial cells in zebrafish gills sense CO₂ levels through an unidentified K_2P K⁺ channel. We have now obtained zfTASK-2 from zebrafish gill tissue that is 49 % identical to mTASK-2. Like its mouse equivalent, it is gated both by extra- and intracellular pH being activated by alkalinization and inhibited by acidification. The pH_i dependence of zfTASK-2 is similar to that of mTASK-2, with pK _1/2 values of 7.9 and 8.0, respectively, but pH_o dependence occurs with a pK _1/2 of 8.8 (8.0 for mTASK-2) in line with the relatively alkaline plasma pH found in fish. Increasing CO₂ led to a rapid, concentration-dependent (IC₅₀ ~1.5 % CO₂) inhibition of mouse and zfTASK-2 that could be resolved into an inhibition by intracellular acidification and a CO₂ effect independent of pH_i change. Indeed a CO₂ effect persisted despite using strongly buffered intracellular solutions abolishing any change in pH_i, was present in TASK-2-K245A mutant insensitive to pH_i, and also under carbonic anhydrase inhibition. The mechanism by which TASK-2 senses CO₂ is unknown but requires the presence of the 245–273 stretch of amino acids in the C terminus that comprises numerous basic amino acids and is important in TASK-2 G protein subunit binding and regulation of the channel. The described CO₂ effect might be of importance in the eventual roles played by TASK-2 in chemoreception in mouse and zebrafish.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

副黏病毒F蛋白融合活性位点中病毒特异性氨基酸基因突变分析

目的 了解副黏病毒融合蛋白(F)融合活性位点中的病毒特异性氨基酸在细胞融合中的作用.方法 以新城疫病毒(NDV)和人副流感病毒(hPIV)为例,在已确定的F蛋白融合活性位点中对病毒特异性氨基酸进行定点突变,然后将突变体F基因与同源或异源的血凝素.神经氨酸酶(HN)基因共转染BHK21细胞后,在真核细胞中表达.Giemsa染色和指示基因法检测细胞融合功能,荧光强度分析(FACS)检测F蛋白的表达效率.结果 在NDV F的突变体中,N150D-L152D的融合功能达到野毒株的46.31%;而N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E的融合活性却几乎消失,分别只有野毒株的1.25%、3.14%和2.23%;N296D-N297D的融合功能是野毒株的97.68%.在hPIV F的突变体中,D143A-E145A的融合功能达到野毒株的32.63%;E223Q-K224A几乎不能形成合胞体,其融合活性只有野毒株的1.91%;K263A-R265A、D268A-D270A和R475A-R476A的融合功能分别是野毒株的14.63%、19.52%和28.95%.FACS结果表明,NDV F的N257D-N258D-Q259E、G271D-N272D和Q279E-Q281E突变体及hPIVF的E223Q-K224A突变体F蛋白在细胞表面几乎没有表达;其余所有突变体F蛋白的表达效率与野毒株相比,基本不变.结论 对于NDV F来说,N257、N258、Q259、G271、N272、Q279、Q281对NDV F的特异性细胞融合功能起重要作用;N150和L152也起一定的作用,但是N296和N297却没有作用.对于hPIV F来说,E223和K224对hPIV F的特异性细胞融合功能起非常重要的作用;D143、E145、K263、R265、D268、D270、R475、R476的作用也很重要.     

Repulsion between Lys258 and upstream arginines explains the missorting of the AQP2 mutant p.Glu258Lys in nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

Regulation of body water homeostasis occurs by the vasopressin‐dependent sorting of aquaporin‐2 (AQP2) water channels to and from the apical membrane of renal principal cells. Mutations in AQP2 cause autosomal nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI), a disease that renders the kidney unresponsive to vasopressin, resulting in polyuria and polydipsia. The AQP2 mutant c.772G>A; p.Glu258Lys (AQP2–E258K) causes dominant NDI by oligomerizing with wild‐type AQP2 and missorting of this AQP2 complex to multivesicular bodies instead of the apical membrane. The motif causing this missorting of AQP2–E258K was identified here. Functional analyses and plasma membrane expression studies of truncation mutants in oocytes revealed that AQP2–E258K shortened to Leu259 is still intracellular retained. Alanine scanning and glutamic acid to arginine exchanges revealed increased function and plasma membrane expression for AQP2–E258K mutants with the following additional changes: Leu259Ala, Arg252Glu, Arg253Glu, or Arg252Ala–Arg254Ala, or for the AQP2 mutant p.Glu258Ala, indicating that the motif RRRxxxK₂₅₈L confers AQP2–E258K retention. Fusion of this motif to aquaporin‐1 also resulted in missorting of that water channel, indicating that this retention motif is transferable. In conclusion, our data reveal that the RRRxxxKL motif and repulsion between K258 and the arginine‐triplet within this motif are the primary cause of missorting of AQP2–E258K in NDI. Hum Mutat 30:1–10, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Identification of the muscarinic pathway underlying cessation of sleep-related burst activity in rat thalamocortical relay neurons

Modulation of the standing outward current (I (SO)) by muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (MAChR) stimulation is fundamental for the state-dependent change in activity mode of thalamocortical relay (TC) neurons. Here, we probe the contribution of MAChR subtypes, G proteins, phospholipase C (PLC), and two pore domain K(+) (K(2P)) channels to this signaling cascade. By the use of spadin and A293 as specific blockers, we identify TWIK-related K(+) (TREK)-1 channel as new targets and confirm TWIK-related acid-sensitve K(+) (TASK)-1 channels as known effectors of muscarinic signaling in TC neurons. These findings were confirmed using a high affinity blocker of TASK-3 and TREK-1, namely, tetrahexylammonium chloride. It was found that the effect of muscarinic stimulation was inhibited by M(1)AChR-(pirenzepine, MT-7) and M(3)AChR-specific (4-DAMP) antagonists, phosphoinositide-specific PLCβ (PI-PLC) inhibitors (U73122, ET-18-OCH(3)), but not the phosphatidylcholine-specific PLC (PC-PLC) blocker D609. By comparison, depleting guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP) in the intracellular milieu nearly completely abolished the effect of MAChR stimulation. The block of TASK and TREK channels was accompanied by a reduction of the muscarinic effect on I (SO). Current-clamp recordings revealed a membrane depolarization following MAChR stimulation, which was sufficient to switch TC neurons from burst to tonic firing under control conditions but not during block of M(1)AChR/M(3)AChR and in the absence of intracellular GTP. These findings point to a critical role of G proteins and PLC as well as TASK and TREK channels in the muscarinic modulation of thalamic activity modes.     

Acid-sensitive two-pore domain potassium (K2P) channels in mouse taste buds

Sour (acid) taste is postulated to result from intracellular acidification that modulates one or more acid-sensitive ion channels in taste receptor cells. The identity of such channel(s) remains uncertain. Potassium channels, by regulating the excitability of taste cells, are candidates for acid transducers. Several 2-pore domain potassium leak conductance channels (K(2)P family) are sensitive to intracellular acidification. We examined their expression in mouse vallate and foliate taste buds using RT-PCR, and detected TWIK-1 and -2, TREK-1 and -2, and TASK-1. Of these, TWIK-1 and TASK-1 were preferentially expressed in taste cells relative to surrounding nonsensory epithelium. The related TRESK channel was not detected, whereas the acid-insensitive TASK-2 was. Using confocal imaging with pH-, Ca(2+)-, and voltage-sensitive dyes, we tested pharmacological agents that are diagnostic for these channels. Riluzole (500 microM), selective for TREK-1 and -2 channels, enhanced acid taste responses. In contrast, halothane (< or = approximately 17 mM), which acts on TREK-1 and TASK-1 channels, blocked acid taste responses. Agents diagnostic for other 2-pore domain and voltage-gated potassium channels (anandamide, 10 microM; Gd(3+), 1 mM; arachidonic acid, 100 microM; quinidine, 200 microM; quinine, 100 mM; 4-AP, 10 mM; and TEA, 1 mM) did not affect acid responses. The expression of 2-pore domain channels and our pharmacological characterization suggest that a matrix of ion channels, including one or more acid-sensitive 2-pore domain K channels, could play a role in sour taste transduction. However, our results do not unambiguously identify any one channel as the acid taste transducer.     

GTP and GDP activation of K+ channels that can be inhibited by ATP

K⁺ channels that can be inhibited by intracellular ATP have been found in many different cell types. In the insulin-secreting pancreatic islet cells these channels are of crucial importance for stimulus-secretion coupling as glucose stimulation closes the ATP-sensitive channels which leads to depolarization and firing of Ca²⁺ action potentials. We now demonstrate that nucleotides other than ATP also influence the gating of these K⁺ channels. In contrast to the action of ATP, GTP (10 M – 1 mM) and GDP (100 M to 1 mM) evoke dose-dependent channel activation and this effect is immediately reversible. Phosphorylation is not directly involved as non-hydrolysable GTP-and GDP-analogues also evoke channel opening. ATP reversibly inhibits opening of the GTP- or GDP- activated K⁺ channels.     

The X-linked retinitis pigmentosa protein RP2 facilitates G protein traffic

The X-linked retinitis pigmentosa protein RP2 is a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for the small GTPase Arl3 and both proteins are implicated in the traffic of proteins to the primary cilia. Here, we show that RP2 can facilitate the traffic of the Gβ subunit of transducin (Gβ1). Glutathione S-transferase (GST)-RP2 pulled down Gβ from retinal lysates and the interaction was specific to Gβ1, as Gβ3 or Gβ5L did not bind RP2. RP2 did not appear to interact with the Gβ:Gγ heterodimer, in contrast Gγ1 competed with RP2 for Gβ binding. Overexpression of Gβ1 in SK-N-SH cells led to a cytoplasmic accumulation of Gβ1, while co-expression of RP2 or Gγ1 with Gβ1 restored membrane association of Gβ1. Furthermore, RP2 small interfering RNA in ARPE19 cells resulted in a reduction in Gβ1 membrane association that was rescued by Gγ1 overexpression. The interaction of RP2 with Gβ1 required RP2 N-terminal myristolyation and the co-factor C (TBCC) homology domain. The interaction was also disrupted by the pathogenic mutation R118H, which blocks Arl3 GAP activity. Interestingly, Arl3-Q71L competed with Gβ1 for RP2 binding, suggesting that Arl3-GTP binding by RP2 would release Gβ1. RP2 also stimulated the association of Gβ1 with Rab11 vesicles. Collectively, the data support a role for RP2 in facilitating the membrane association and traffic of Gβ1, potentially prior to the formation of the obligate Gβ:Gγ heterodimer. Combined with other recent evidence, this suggests that RP2 may co-operate with Arl3 and its effectors in the cilia-associated traffic of G proteins.     

HL-1 cells express an inwardly rectifying K+ current activated via muscarinic receptors comparable to that in mouse atrial myocytes

An inwardly rectifying K⁺ current is present in atrial cardiac myocytes that is activated by acetylcholine (I_KACh). Physiologically, activation of the current in the SA node is important in slowing the heart rate with increased parasympathetic tone. It is a paradigm for the direct regulation of signaling effectors by the Gβγ G-protein subunit. Many questions have been addressed in heterologous expression systems with less focus on the behaviour in native myocytes partly because of the technical difficulties in undertaking comparable studies in native cells. In this study, we characterise a potassium current in the atrial-derived cell line HL-1. Using an electrophysiological approach, we compare the characteristics of the potassium current with those in native atrial cells and in a HEK cell line expressing the cloned Kir3.1/3.4 channel. The potassium current recorded in HL-1 is inwardly rectifying and activated by the muscarinic agonist carbachol. Carbachol-activated currents were inhibited by pertussis toxin and tertiapin-Q. The basal current was time-dependently increased when GTP was substituted in the patch-clamp pipette by the non-hydrolysable analogue GTPγS. We compared the kinetics of current modulation in HL-1 with those of freshly isolated atrial mouse cardiomyocytes. The current activation and deactivation kinetics in HL-1 cells are comparable to those measured in atrial cardiomyocytes. Using immunofluorescence, we found GIRK4 at the membrane in HL-1 cells. Real-time RT-PCR confirms the presence of mRNA for the main G-protein subunits, as well as for M2 muscarinic and A1 adenosine receptors. The data suggest HL-1 cells are a good model to study IKAch.     

Recombinant WNTs differentially activate β-catenin-dependent and -independent signalling in mouse microglia-like cells

Aim: The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy of different recombinant, commercially available Wingless/Int‐1 (WNTs) with regard to WNT/β‐catenin signalling, dishevelled (DVL) and G protein activation and the induction of cell proliferation in a microglia‐like cell line called N13. Methods: For detection of activated signalling molecules, cell lysates are analysed by immunoblotting. Furthermore, we used a [γ³⁵S] GTP binding assay to monitor the exchange of GDP for GTP in heterotrimeric G proteins in N13 membrane preparations. Cell proliferation was assessed by the 3‐(4,5‐Dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay measuring mitochondrial function, which is proportional to the amount of viable cells. Results: Of the WNTs tested (WNT‐3A, ‐4, ‐5A, ‐5B, ‐7A,‐9B), only WNT‐3A activated WNT/β‐catenin signalling in N13 cells. All WNTs induced the formation of P hosphorylated and S hifted DVL (PS‐DVL) and the activation of heterotrimeric G proteins with variable efficacies. WNT‐5A and WNT‐9B, which had the highest efficacy in the G protein assay, also induced N13 cell proliferation. Conclusion: WNTs show significant differences in their efficacy to activate β‐catenin‐dependent and ‐independent signalling. The WNTs tested are present during maturation of the central nervous system and/or in the adult brain and are thus potential regulators of microglia‐mediated neuroinflammation.