Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus infection in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis at the National Chest Hospital in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) infection in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis at the National Chest Hospital in Jamaica. METHODS: This retrospective study reviewed the hospital records of 537 patients admitted over a seven-year period from 1995 to 2001. We used a standardized data collection form to obtain data for sociodemographic characteristics, clinical features, signs and symptoms, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and outcome. RESULTS: We found that 11.6% (47/406) of the patients who met the inclusion criteria and were diagnosed as having pulmonary tuberculosis were HIV-1 seropositive. Most HIV-positive patients with tuberculosis were males, and prevalence of HIV coinfection among patients with tuberculosis was highest in patients aged 30-39 years. The mortality rate in patients with tuberculosis and HIV infection was 23.4% (11/47) compared to 3.9% (14/359; P = 0.001) in HIV-negative patients. Patients were treated with standard quadruple drug therapy. No multiple drug resistance was noted in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of HIV in patients with tuberculosis in Jamaica is similar to that in other developing countries, but the mortality rate is higher and this warrants prompt diagnosis of HIV infection and early institution of highly active antiretroviral therapy.     

Directly observed therapy (DOT): from tuberculosis to HIV

BACKGROUND: Combination antiretroviral therapy, which is the standard of care since 1996, has been demonstrated to be very effective in suppressing plasma viral load in patients infected with HIV. Optimal benefit from antiretroviral drugs, however, is obtained when the patient adheres strictly to the rigorous treatment regimen. For some patients it is difficult to obtain good adherence to antiretroviral regimens. In response to these concerns, different strategies, such as directly observed therapy, have been proposed to attempt to improve adherence to antiretroviral treatment. Directly observed therapy is a strategy that has its roots in the treatment of tuberculosis and it consists essentially of taking the medication in the presence of a health care provider or another designated person. This strategy has been recently tried in the treatment of HIV but its efficacy remains unknown. METHOD: A Medline and Medscape search was performed to review all pertinent publications on the use of directly observed therapy in HIV infection. RESULTS: Twenty-five papers published between 1996 and 2004 were selected. Almost all the studies were performed in industrialized countries in North America and Europe. The majority of the studies are retrospective, six of them comparing at least two strategies (directly observed therapy vs standard of care). Only one randomized trial has been found. The patients involved in the studies are intravenous drug users or particularly non-adherent patients. Almost all studies show a better rate of adherence or a better control of the viremia in patients on directly observed therapy. CONCLUSIONS: The directly observed therapy seems to be a valuable and feasible way to raise the adherence rate in HIV patients with a problem of non-adherence to antiretroviral treatments. Clinical trials are needed to evaluate the efficacy of this strategy to raise the adherence rate among patients who need additional support to take their antiretrovirals.     

湖南省艾滋病患者抗病毒治疗后耐药性分析

目的了解湖南省艾滋病患者接受免费抗病毒治疗的效果以及人免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)的耐药情况,为改善该省的高效抗逆转录病毒治疗效果,指导临床医生用药提供科学的依据。方法收集湖南省衡阳市抗病毒治疗6个月以上的252例HIV感染者的血标本,进行病毒载量检测,其中32例病毒载量10~3拷贝/mL,对此32份样本进行进一步的HIV基因型耐药检测。结果测得的31个序列中,发生突变的样本18份,其中13份(5.16%,13/252)对蛋白酶抑制剂(PIs)、核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NRTIs)以及非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NNRTIs)这3类抗逆转录病毒药物有耐药突变;对PIs、NRTIs和NNRTIs均耐药者1例(0.40%),对NRTIs和NNRTIs均耐药者9例(3.57%),对NNRTIs耐药者3例(1.19%)。同时发现M184V、K103N、Y181CG、G190A引起NRTIs和NNRTIs高水平耐药的重要突变位点。结论湖南省艾滋病治疗者中,PIs耐药发生率极低,NRTIs和NNRTIs的耐药发生率相对较高;已出现NNRTIs高水平的多药耐药。但总体耐药的发生仍处于较低水平。     

Drug-induced tubulointerstitial nephritis

Three patients were diagnosed with drug-induced tubulointerstitial nephritis: a 72-year-old woman who was using a proton pump inhibitor, an 83-year-old woman who had recently been treated with antibiotics and an 83-year-old man who was using omeprazole. Discontinuation of the medications in question and the initiation of glucocorticoids resulted in improved renal function. In two of these patients, the diagnosis was established by renal biopsy. Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis is an important cause of renal insufficiency. It is characterized by inflammatory changes in interstitial tissue. Frequently prescribed medications such as proton pump inhibitors, antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may cause acute tubulointerstitial nephritis. Other causes are infections and auto-immune diseases. Renal failure may be reversible when use of the offending drug is discontinued. Partial or total renal insufficiency may, however, persist. Early treatment with steroids seems to improve the recovery of renal function in patients with drug-induced tubulointerstitial nephritis, although the evidence is not conclusive.     

HIV耐药毒株在山东省艾滋病抗病毒治疗人群中的流行及演变

目的 了解HIV耐药毒株在山东省AIDS抗病毒治疗人群中的流行及演变.方法 对山东省抗病毒治疗时间满1年的324例AIDS患者,使用荧光实时定量PCR( NucliSens EasyQ系统)进行HIV病毒载量检测,对结果大于1000拷贝/ml的样本采用基因型耐药检测白建方法(in house)进行HIV耐药检测.对耐药者既往(治疗前、治疗中)样本进行耐药检测,分析耐药株的演变状况.结果 HIV抗病毒治疗满1年人群耐药率为6.2％ (20/324),有耐药突变位点但不耐药为0.6％ (5/324);核苷类与非核苷类耐药突变位点占所测突变位点的93.1％ (94/101),蛋白酶类仅占6.9％ (7/101);M184V及Y181C位点在25份样本中出现突变频率最高,分别为48.0％( 12/25)和32.0％ (8/25).演变研究发现,20.0％( 2/10)的耐药者属于原发耐药;最早在治疗6个月后检测到了耐药;病毒株存在从无耐药突变位点向有耐药突变位点、从仅有耐药突变位点而不耐药向耐药、从对少种类药物低水平耐受向对多种类药物高水平耐受的演变现象,也存在突变位点相互影响使得对某种药物耐受程度降低的演变现象.结论 HIV耐药毒株在山东省AIDS抗病毒治疗人群中处于较低流行水平,耐药株的演变现象复杂.     

Treatment Outcomes for Patients with Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis,KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape Provinces,South Africa

We analyzed data for a retrospective cohort of patients treated for extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in 2 provinces in South Africa and compared predictors of treatment outcome in HIV-positive patients who received or had not received antiretroviral drugs with those for HIV-negative patients. Overall, 220 (62.0%) of 355 patients were HIV positive. After 2 years, 34 (10.3%) of 330 patients with a known HIV status and known outcome had a favorable outcome. Multivariate analysis showed that predictors of favorable outcome were negative results for acid-fast bacilli by sputum microscopy at start of treatment and weight >50 kg. HIV-positive patients were more likely to have an unfavorable outcome. The strongest predictor of unfavorable outcome was weight <50 kg. Overall outcomes were poor. HIV status was not a predictor of favorable outcome, but HIV-positive patients were more likely to have an unfavorable outcome. These results underscore the need for timely and adequate treatment for tuberculosis and HIV infection.     

HIV-test policy for tuberculosis patients in the Netherlands

OBJECTIVE: To compare the proportion of tuberculosis patients tested for HIV infection, before and after introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the Netherlands, and to analyse predictive factors for performing an HTV-test in this population. DESIGN: Retrospective. METHOD: Whether patients had been tested for HIV, was investigated in random samples consisting of 200 patients, who were registered in the Netherlands Tuberculosis Register (NTR) in the years 1995 and 2001 respectively. RESULTS: The number of patients tested for HIV was 29 out of 84 (16%) in 1995, and 39 out of 190 (21%) in 2001 (not significant). HIV-tests had been carried out most frequently among homeless patients (71%), drug addicts (56%) and alcohol-abusing patients (60%). Significant predictive factors for HIV testing were place of residence (city), localisation of disease (pulmonary tuberculosis in combination with extrapulmonary tuberculosis) and place of origin (sub-Saharan Africa). CONCLUSION: Despite introduction of HAART during this period, in the Netherlands the proportion of tuberculosis patients tested for HIV did not significantly increase between 1995 and 2001. HIV testing was mainly limited to tuberculosis patients from risk groups.     

Delay in the diagnosis of tuberculosis

In five patients, a 46-year-old Surinamese man, a 45-year-old Dutch barkeeper, a 41-year-old woman from Eritrea, and an 18-year-old Afghan woman and her 43-year-old mother, tuberculosis was diagnosed and treated after a considerable delay. Such a late diagnosis and subsequent treatment is not uncommon for tuberculosis as the symptoms, physical examination, laboratory tests, imaging techniques and bacteriological results are often not very specific. However under certain circumstances, tuberculosis (including the extrapulmonary manifestations) should be considered at an earlier stage, especially among certain risk groups such as the homeless, drug addicts, immigrants and asylum seekers. In the five patients discussed the causes of delay were identified as: delay caused by the asymptomatic phase of the disease, the patient's delay in presenting, a delay on the part of the physician, a delay in diagnostic confirmation and a delay in the treatment.     

Misinterpreted lymphadenopathy and thrombocytopenia as unrecognised initial symptoms of an HIV-infection

In a 28-year-old woman and a 30-year-old man with lymphadenopathy, shown by histopathology to be follicular hyperplasia, and in a 40-year-old woman and a 40-year-old man with a thrombocytopenia, HIV-infection was not diagnosed until years later. Three of the four patients did not belong to a 'classical high-risk group' for HIV/AIDS. All patients, meanwhile, suffered from minor or major complications. Moreover, the number of CD4+ cells had decreased to < or = 200/microl before antiretroviral therapy was started. After treatment, all four patients were in reasonable to good condition. An HIV-infection should be considered in every case of reactive lymphadenopathy or thrombocytopenia.     

Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug resistance in HIV patients in Baixada Santista, São Paulo, Brazil

Since the early 1990s, an increase in Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug resistance has been reported, with high prevalence among HIV+ patients. We evaluated the sensitivity patterns of M. tuberculosis, resistance rate, and predisposing factors among HIV+ patients in Santos, S?o Vicente, Cubat?o, Praia Grande, and Guarujá, S?o Paulo State, Brazil. The medical charts of 301 patients with positive cultures for M. tuberculosis from 1993 to 2003 were reviewed. Resistance occurred in 57 patients (18.9%), as follows: 32 (10.6%) displayed multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (resistant to at least Rifampicin and Isoniazid); 4 (1.3%) were resistant to two or more drugs; and 21 (7%) were resistant to a single drug. Acquired resistance was observed in 70.1% of cases. Drug resistance was significantly associated with previous tuberculosis treatment, duration of HIV diagnosis, and previous hospitalization. In logistic regression analysis, only previous tuberculosis treatment adjusted by age remained as an independent risk factor (OR = 5.49; 95%CI: 2.60-11.60). Drug resistance to at least one drug in 18.9% and multidrug resistance in 10.6% of cases highlight the relevance of this problem in HIV patients in the Baixada Santista.     

Adherence, stereotyping and unequal HIV treatment for active users of illegal drugs

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy promotes viral suppression and extends the lives of individuals with HIV, yet illegal drug users are underrepresented among eligible persons receiving HIV treatment. One explanation for this is the assumption that drug users are less capable than others of adhering to complicated medication regimens. This paper investigates this assumption by making explicit a number of its underlying propositions and examining them in light of data collected from 52 active drug users living in and around Boston, USA, who were taking highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV (HAART). The propositions are: (1) drug users lead "chaotic" lives; (2) active drug users are always using drugs; (3) being under the influence of drugs precludes taking medications as prescribed; and (4) drug users are intrinsically different from non-users in the lives they lead and the problems they face. Data collection consisted of a series of qualitative interviews with each participant. An analytic approach informed by grounded theory was used to construct thematic content categories from the data. Results revealed stability and control as well as "chaos" in the lives of study participants. Frequency of drug use varied considerably. Using did interfere with adherence, but not in every circumstance or all cases. Not "carrying" medications, competing priorities, and re-defining regimens were the most salient of a number of non-drug-use-related obstacles observed. Documentation of patterns of variation in corresponding data highlights the stereotypical quality of the propositions. Stereotyping risks overemphasis on drug use as a barrier to adherence for active users, and underemphasis on non-drug-use-related obstacles. Adherence capabilities of users, in contrast to inadequacies, are also obscured through stereotyping. As a medium for stigmatization, stereotyping may contribute to unequal treatment for drug users and other populations living with HIV.     

浙江省主要地区抗病毒治疗病人HIV毒株耐药基因变异研究

目的:调查分析浙江省主要地区(杭州、宁波和温州)的抗病毒治疗病人的耐药基因变异情况,以进一步指导抗病毒药物的选用。方法:选取三地区接受抗病毒治疗的274例患者,对病毒抑制失败(即病毒载量大于1000 IU/ml)的样本进行HIV蛋白酶(PR)全长和部分逆转录酶(RT)基因区进行RT-PCR和巢式PCR扩增并测序。使用斯坦福大学HIVdb程序在线分析耐药相关突变位点,并分析对各药物的敏感性。结果:病毒未抑制率为10.9%(30/274),最终获得29份序列用于耐药基因分析。发现蛋白酶抑制剂(PI)、核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NRTI)和非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NNRTI)最主要耐药突变类型分别为M46I、M184V和Y181C/V,三类药物的耐药率分别为0.4%(1/273),7.3%(20/273)和7.7%(21/273),总耐药率为7.7%(21/273)。21个个体发生耐药,其中4.8%(1/21)的个体对PI耐药,95.2%(20/21)对NRTI耐药,所有人均对NNRTI耐药,90.5%(19/21)的个体表现对NRTI和NNRTI的双重耐药。结论:整体而言,浙江省主要地区抗病毒治疗病人中HIV毒株耐药处于较低水平,但耐药突变呈多样化,耐药个体NRTI和NNRTI双重耐药突出,但对PI药物普遍敏感,应结合实际科学合理用药。     

艾滋病感染者抗病毒治疗的服药依从性及其相关因素的研究

目的 了解河南省艾滋病病毒感染者／艾滋病患者(HIV／AIDS）高效联合抗病毒疗法(HAART)的服药依从性及其相关因素。方法 抽取了2个AIDS综合防治示范区、1个AIDS高发县。未服药和服药在2—12个月的HIV感染者作为被调查对象，分别对服药依从性、不良反应及临床表现，治疗前后临床症状改善状况及治疗保障措施等项目，通过访谈问卷调查；同时抽取静脉血，测定评价服药者CD4^ T淋巴细胞，病毒载量，用逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)方法扩增HIV-1 POL区基因，进行基因型耐药性分析。结果 治疗组治疗时间在4—8个月的人数最多占78．24％，服药依从性达到90％～100％的占67．51％，停服和漏服药物的主要原因是不良反应占66．95％，最显著的不良反应是服药后引起的恶心、呕吐、皮疹等不适。治疗组坚持服药症状明显改善的占87．57％，停服和漏服药症状未明显改善的占11．01％。服药依从性对病情趋势变化具有显著影响(P＜0．05)。治疗组服药后CD4^ T细胞总数保持稳定或有所增加，但实际速度较缓慢。抗病毒治疗3个月和6个月时，患者的病情好转率分别是55．1％和50．8％，CD4^ T细胞数较未服药治疗的患者显著提高。耐药性毒株的流行率显著增加，由未服药人群的13．9％快速上升到服药3个月的45．4％和服药6个月的62．7％，其中对非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂(NNRTI)类药物耐药性的增加最为明显，导致中高度以上耐药率的显著增加。结论 采取有效的抗病毒治疗以后，HIV／AIDS患者在接受抗病毒治疗过程中，服药依从性直接关系治疗效果以及对治疗计划的实施。避免耐药毒株的出现，必须提高服药依从性，这对今后评价治疗效果具有重要意义。     

5省艾滋病高发地区HIV感染孕产妇应用抗逆转录病毒药物影响因素分析

目的了解HIV抗体咨询与检测对孕产妇应用抗逆转录病毒药物依从性的影响。方法 2006年1月至2010年12月在全国艾滋病相对高发地区的23个市/县/区开展艾滋病母婴传播队列研究。对1414名HIV感染孕产妇及所生儿童的人口学特征、应用抗逆转录病毒药物方案、孕产妇接受预防艾滋病母婴传播自愿咨询与检测服务的情况进行问卷调查。结果 1414名HIV感染孕产妇中,有1120名（79.77%）感染孕产妇接受了抗逆转录病毒药物,有87.69%儿童应用了抗逆转录病毒药物。将单因素中对用药产生影响的变量纳入多因素Logistic回归模型,结果显示,接受过检测前、后咨询服务的HIV感染孕产妇应用抗逆转录病毒药物的比例分别是未接受过检测前、后咨询者的1.99倍和3.08倍（OR=1.99,95%CI：1.37～2.89;OR=3.08,95%CI：1.16～8.20）。若HIV感染孕产妇是既往感染者,则其接受抗逆转录病毒药物的可能性较大（OR=4.11,95%CI：2.72～6.20）。结论提高HIV抗体检测咨询覆盖和服务质量,有助于提高HIV感染孕产妇对抗逆转录病毒药物的应用。     

金砖国家艾滋病抗病毒治疗药物保障策略及启示

随着艾滋病免费抗病毒治疗政策的推行,免费治疗人数的增加,药品治疗费用的攀升,金砖五国的艾滋病抗病毒药物保障均面临巨大挑战。为此,金砖五国推出了一系列政策以促进药物国产化和压低进口药品价格。本文对金砖国家艾滋病流行及防治情况、防艾药物的生产供给情况及药物保障政策进行分析,并提出启示与建议:(1)建立艾滋病抗病毒治疗药物统筹协调机制;(2)减少药品专利许可,增加国产药物仿制的可能;(3)与原研企业谈判获得自愿许可或技术转让加快药物国产化进程;(4)利用反垄断法获得药品自愿许可促进药品国产化;(5)必要时启动强制许可实现药品国产化;(6)寻求多种谈判筹码降低进口药品价格;(7)加强非政府组织自身能力建设。     

云南省德宏州3103例艾滋病患者抗病毒治疗后生存分析

目的 了解云南省德宏州艾滋病患者接受国家免费抗病毒治疗后的生存情况.方法 采用回顾性研究,对德宏州2004年7月1日至2009年12月31日接受国家免费抗病毒治疗、入组抗病毒治疗时CD4+T淋巴细胞计数＜350个/μl、且年满16周岁的所有艾滋病患者进行分析.结果 共计3103例艾滋病患者开展了抗病毒治疗,平均年龄(36.0±9.9)岁,62.4%是男性,感染途径以经异性性传播为主(66.2%).病例平均随访治疗时间为21.7个月,绝大部分病例依从性＞90%,即平均每月漏服次数不足1～5次.抗病毒治疗后,第1、2、3、4、5年的累计生存率分别为0.95、0.94、0.93、0.92和0.92.Cox比例风险回归模型分析发现:在控制了年龄、性别、婚姻状况等因素的潜在混杂作用影响后,基线CD4+T淋巴细胞计数水平以及传播途径与其生存时间之间存在统计学关联.基线CD4+T淋巴细胞计数在200～350个/mm3之间死于艾滋病相关疾病的风险较基线CD4+T淋巴细胞计数＜200个/mm3的艾滋病患者低(HR=0.16,95%Cl:0.09～0.28)、经母婴传播等途径(不包括经异性性传播途径)感染HIV的患者死于艾滋病相关疾病的风险较经静脉注射毒品途径感染HIV者低(HR=0.35,95%Cl:0.13～1.00).结论 免费抗病毒治疗显著提高了艾滋病患者的生存率,较早启动抗病毒治疗有望取得更好的生存效果.     

Access to antiretroviral treatment among French HIV infected injection drug users: the influence of continued drug use. MANIF 2000 Study Group

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the influence of continued drug use and its perception by prescribing physicians on access to antiretroviral treatment among French HIV infected injection drug users (IDUs). DESIGN: Cross sectional including enrollment data (October 1995-1996) of the cohort study MANIF 2000. Access to treatment is compared in three groups: former IDUs (n = 68) and active IDUs whether or not this behaviour remains undetected (n = 38) or detected (n = 17) by physicians. SETTING: Hospital departments for specialist AIDS care in south eastern France and inner suburbs of Paris. PATIENTS: All enrolled patients with CD4+ cell counts < 400 with detailed clinical history, access to treatment, risk behaviours, and past drug use as reported by both physicians and patients (n = 123). MAIN RESULTS: A minority (43.9%) already received an antiretroviral treatment. Active IDUs had worst socioeconomic and psychological conditions but only those detected by physicians were considered as poorly compliant. Logistic regression showed that, with respect to ex-IDUs and independently of clinical stage, active IDUs, whether or not they were perceived as such by physicians, were threefold more likely not to receive antiretroviral treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Even among French HIV infected IDUs who have regular access to AIDS specialised hospital care, continued drug use reduced the likelihood of being prescribed antiretroviral treatment. To reduce delays in access to new treatments, specific efforts must be devoted towards both AIDS specialists and IDU patients to overcome current stereotypes of non-compliance associated with continued injection.     

Post-exposure prophylaxis following exposure to HIV: adaptation to the situation may be indicated

A woman aged 36 injured herself on a needle that had been used to take an iliac-crest biopsy from an HIV-positive patient and a man aged 34 and a woman aged 35 had sexual contact with their HIV-positive partners during which the condom tore. They were given post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) which was formulated using medication and virus resistance data from the HIV-positive individual. At 3 and 6 months the patients were all still HIV-negative. After occupational or non-occupational exposure to HIV, PEP is initiated if there is a reasonable risk of transmission of HIV. In The Netherlands a combination of 3 antiretroviral drugs is advised based on demonstrated antiviral effectiveness in the regular treatment of HIV-infections. Frequently a standard PEP-regimen is prescribed. If the source patient has a history of antiretroviral therapy, the virus might be resistant to standard PEP-regimens. In these cases the choice of drugs in the PEP-regimen can be individualised based on the antiretroviral medication history of the source patient and known resistance patterns of the source virus.