Esophageal chest pain

Recurrent chest pain frequently results in significant disability and anxiety, even after cardiac disease has been excluded. A stepwise approach is recommended for the diagnosis of pulmonary conditions, musculoskeletal disorders and structural problems of the upper gastrointestinal tract that can produce chest pain. If a search for these disorders proves negative, an esophageal source of chest pain should be strongly suspected. Although gastroesophageal reflux disease is the most common and easily treated cause of esophageal chest pain, esophageal motility disorders should also be considered. Motility disorders include achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm, nutcracker esophagus, hypertensive lower esophageal sphincter and nonspecific motility disorders.     

Esophageal manifestation in patients with scleroderma

The esophagus is the most commonly affected part of the gastrointestinal system in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc). Esophageal involvement may lead to a significant reduction in patient quality of life. The exact pathophysiology is complex and not yet fully elucidated. Ultimately, esophageal smooth muscle becomes atrophied and replaced by fibrous tissue leading to severe motility disturbance of the distal esophagus. Symptoms are mainly attributed to gastroesophageal reflux disease and to esophageal dysmotility. Compelling evidence has correlated esophageal involvement to the severity of pulmonary disease. No formed guidelines exist about the diagnostic modalities used to assess esophageal disease in patients with SSc, though upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the first and most important modality used as it can reveal alterations commonly observed in patients with SSc. Further exploration can be made by high resolution manometry and pH-impedance study. Proton pump inhibitors remain the mainstay of treatment, while prokinetic agents are commonly used as add-on therapy in patients with symptoms attributed to gastroesophageal reflux disease not responding to standard therapy as well as to motility disturbances. Gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms in patients with SSc are frequently difficult to manage, and new therapeutic modalities are emerging. The role of surgical treatment is restricted and should only be preserved for resistant cases.     

Primary esophageal motility disorders

Esophageal motility disorders often manifest with chest pain and dysphagia. Achalasia is a disorder of the lower esophageal sphincter and the smooth musculature of the esophageal body. In achalasia the lower esophageal sphincter typically fails to relax with swallowing, and the esophageal body fails to undergo peristalsis. In contrast to spastic disorders of the esophagus, achalasia can be progressive and cause pronounced morbidity. Pseudoachalasia mimics achalasia in terms of symptoms but can be caused by infectious disorders or malignancy. Treatment for achalasia is nonstandardized and includes medical, endoscopic, and surgical options. Spastic disorders of the esophagus, such as diffuse esophageal spasm and nutcracker esophagus, and nonspecific esophageal motility disorder are benign and nonprogressive, with similar findings on esophageal manometry. Although the exact cause remains unknown, these disorders may represent a manifestation of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Treatment of spastic disorders includes medical and surgical approaches and is aimed at symptomatic relief.     

Diagnosis and treatment of esophageal motility disorders

Apart from gastroesophageal reflux disease, achalasia, non-cardiac chest pain and functional dysphagia are the most important manifestations of disturbed esophageal motility. Achalasia is characterized by esophageal aperistalsis and impaired deglutitive relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. The morphological correlate is a degeneration of nitrergic neurons in the myenteric plexus. Diagnosis is based on barium esophagram or esophageal manometry with the latter setting the gold standard. Endoscopic exclusion of a tumor at the gastroesophageal junction is mandatory. Appropriate therapeutic interventions are pneumatic dilatation or (laparoscopic myotomy) of lower esophageal sphincter. In patients unfit for these procedures endoscopic injection of botulinum toxin into the lower esophageal sphincter is appropriate. Non-cardiac chest pain may be of esophageal origin. Gastroesophageal reflux, spastic motility disorders and visceral hypersensitivity are arguable underlying mechanisms. The most important diagnostic procedure is 24 h esophageal pH metry correlating symptoms and reflux episodes. Proton pump inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants serving as visceral analgesics are appropriate therapeutic approaches. Functional dysphagia defines the sensation of impaired passage without mechanical obstruction or a neuromuscular disease with known pathology, e.g. scleroderma. Impaired transit is proven by esophageal scintigraphy or radiogram both using solid boluses. Manometry assesses the underlying mechanisms.     

胃食管反流病合并食管裂孔疝患者的临床特点分析

目的分析胃食管反流病(GERD)合并食管裂孔疝(HH)患者的临床特点及其危险因素。方法回顾性分析2018年1月-2019年3月在宁夏回族自治区人民医院消化内科诊断为GERD合并HH的40例患者并作为研究组,另外40例GERD未合并HH的患者为对照组,比较两组患者的基本临床资料、内镜分级、Barrett食管发生率。结果研究组患者的年龄、体重、吸烟史、糖尿病与对照组比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05),两组性别、饮酒史和冠心病比较,差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05);研究组食管外症状较多见,内镜下分级仅有C级与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);A级、B级、D级两组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);两组Barrett食管发生率比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论GERD合并HH与年龄、体重、吸烟史、糖尿病有关,且其会使Barrett食管发生率升高,积极防控可改变的因素对该类患者可能有一定的好处。     

Common Problems of The Esophagus

A brief review of common neuromuscular abnormality of the esophagus is given, with particular attention to the incompetent gastroesophageal sphincter and disordered motor activity of the esophageal body. There are a few simple messages to be emphasized and remembered. 1. The esophagus does not cause vague symptoms; they are definite and well-defined. 2. Dysphagia is an organic symptom unless proved otherwise. 3. Gastroesophageal reflux is caused by a poorly functioning physiological gastroesophageal sphincter. Gastroesophageal reflux and hiatus hernia are not directly related. 4. Gastroesophageal reflux is common but rarely serious. 5. Antacid has a sound physiological basis for its effectiveness in treating gastroesophageal reflux. 6. Anticholinergic medication is bad for gastroesophageal reflux. 7. Disordered esophageal motor activity is a common occurrence and may cause symptoms.     

Gastroesophageal reflux disease in diabetic patients

Esophageal dysfunctions occur frequently in patients with diabetic autonomic neuropathy, and the complication of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) has also been reported. However, the characteristics of the GERD complicated with diabetes are obscure, because no detail assessment was performed. We recorded esophageal motility and acid reflux simultaneously in diabetic patients, and the correlation between esophageal dysfunction and diabetic neuropathy was examined. Esophageal dysfunctions including GERD were significantly related to diabetic motor neuropathy. Although the GERD is frequently complicated with diabetes, the symptoms are not apparent in diabetic patients. Therefore, physicians treating diabetic patients should have GERD in mind regardless of the symptoms. We also examined the effect of aldose reductase inhibitor (ARI) on the esophageal dysfunction in diabetic patients. Significant improvement of gastroesophageal reflux and esophageal motility were observed in diabetic patients by ARI treatment. ARI may be useful for the treatment of GERD complicated with diabetes.     

Prokinetic medication after surgical therapy of reflux patients with disorders of esophageal peristalsis: a randomized clinical study

BACKGROUND: Long-standing gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is frequently associated with impaired esophageal body motility. Partial posterior fundoplication improves esophageal peristalsis. The aim of this prospective randomized study was to investigate whether administration of the prokinetic agent cisapride enhances this effect. METHODS: Forty consecutive GERD patients with impaired esophageal peristalsis entered the study and were randomized in two groups: group 1 with and group 2 without postoperative treatment with cisapride (6 months, 20 mg twice daily). Four patients had to be excluded during the study. Esophageal motility was analyzed preoperatively and 6 months after surgery by measuring contraction amplitudes in the distal two thirds of the esophagus, frequency of simultaneous and interrupted peristaltic waves and total number of defective propagations. RESULTS: In both groups esophageal peristalsis was improved significantly following partial posterior fundoplication (p < 0.05; Wilcoxon Test). However, this effect was significantly more pronounced in patients receiving cisapride medication postoperatively (p < 0.05; Mann-Whitney U test). Lower esophageal sphincter pressure, intra-abdominal sphincter length and the DeMeester reflux score were normalized in both groups following antireflux surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Partial posterior fundoplication combined with postoperative cisapride medication seems to be the therapy of choice in GERD patients with impaired esophageal body motility.     

Pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux and Barrett esophagus

Barrett esophagus is a metaplastic condition that affects the lower esophagus and is a complication of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Under normal circumstances, the reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus is prevented by a complex barrier at the esophagogastric junction. Dysfunction of the lower esophageal sphincter and the presence of a hiatal hernia lead to failure of this barrier. Esophageal mucosal damage results from the chronic exposure of the esophageal mucosa to gastroduodenal contents and the lack of an effective mucosal defense. This article is an overview of the dysfunction of the esophagogastric junction that leads to GERD. The role of the contents of the reflux and that of Helicobacter pylori infection in the pathogenesis of Barrett esophagus are also summarized.     

Management of gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease is the most common and expensive digestive disease with complex and multi-factorial pathophysiologic mechanisms. Transient inappropriate relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter is the predominant mechanism in the majority of patients with mild to moderate disease. Hiatal hernias and a reduced lower esophageal sphincter pressure have a significant role in patients with moderate to severe disease. Typical manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease include heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia. Atypical symptoms, such as noncardiac chest pain, pulmonary manifestations of asthma, cough, aspiration pneumonia, or ENT manifestations of globus and laryngitis, can be seen in patients with or without typical symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Endoscopy and ambulatory pH tests are best to evaluate the anatomic and physiologic impact ofgastroesophageal reflux disease. Complications of chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease include peptic strictures and Barrett metaplasia. Barrett esophagus is a major risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma, and upper endoscopy with surveillance biopsies is recommended for patients with Barrett esophagus. Medical therapy with anti-secretory agents (H2 blockers and proton pump inhibitors) is effective for most patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Surgical fundoplications and endoscopic treatment modalities are mechanical treatment options for patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease.     

Pathogenesis and treatment of refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease in Japanese patients

Prevalence of refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) defined as a patient who have persistent GERD symptoms during treatment with proton pump inhibitor (PPI) is rare in Japanese patinets. Pathogenesis of refractory GERD is associated with several factors including dysfunction of esophageal motility, presence of severe hiatal hernia, complication such as stricture and short esophagus, extensive metabolizer of CYP2C19 genotype, nocturnal gastric acid breakthrough, absence of H. pylori infection, or bile reflux. Examination by 24 hr pH monitoring is necessary to assess refractory GERD and if acid suppression is insufficient, treatment with double doses of PPIs or combination of PPI and H2 blocker is effective. However, most cases of refractory GERD are required surgical treatment. Endoscopic therapy might be useful for refractory GERD in future.     

Motor disorders of the esophagus: diagnosis and treatment

Esophageal motor disorders may be clearly primary, as in achalasia or diffuse esophageal spasm (DES), or clearly secondary, as in scleroderma or intrathoracic malignancy. In patients with gastroesophageal reflux, abnormal motility of the esophageal body and stomach, and lower esophageal spasm (LES) appear to predispose patients to reflux. It is possible that esophagitis caused by refluxed gastric material then further impairs motility, propagating the injury. Therapeutically, appropriate use of recently available medications, such as calcium channel blockers and metoclopramide, and new applications of previously available agents, such as hydralazine and bethanechol, have improved our ability to relieve symptoms and at times restore more normal motility.     

Esophageal motility disorders with thoracic pain of unknown origin

35 patients with angina-like chest pain underwent esophageal manometry after a coronary artery disease had been ruled out by angiography. Furthermore, patients after gastric or esophageal surgery, with pathologic upper gastrointestinal endoscopy or with pathologic gastroesophageal reflux as seen on 24-hour-pH-metry were excluded from this study. 29 out of 35 patients (83%) had a normal manometric study, six patients (17%) had a motility disorder; five of these showed an unspecific dismotility pattern and were asymptomatic while the study was done; only one patient presented with esophageal spasm. Since only this latter patient was symptomatic while the study was done, a correlation between symptoms and this motility disorder seems likely. --If pathologic gastroesophageal reflux has been ruled out, esophageal manometry can establish a diagnosis in only 3% of patients with angina-like chest pain without esophageal symptoms (dysphagia, odynophagia, heartburn or regurgitation). We conclude that this complicated examination should not be done in these patients.     

Cervical esophageal webs: association with gastroesophageal reflux

Background: We investigated whether there is a significant association between cervical esophageal webs and gastroesophageal reflux on pharyngoesophagography. Methods: We studied 50 patients with cervical esophageal webs on pharyngoesophagrams and 50 control subjects. The control group was matched to the webs group for age, sex, and symptomatology. Patients with cervical esophageal webs and controls were compared to determine the prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux, hiatal hernias, reflux esophagitis, and abnormal esophageal motility. Pearson's chi-square test was used to determine any statistically significant differences in the frequencies of these findings between groups. Results: Thirty-nine (78%) of 50 patients with cervical esophageal webs versus 27 (54%) of 50 patients in the control group had gastroesophageal reflux (p = 0.01). When patients were classified based on degree of gastroesophageal reflux, 22 (44%) of 50 patients with cervical esophageal webs versus 21 (42%) of 50 controls had mild reflux (p = 0.84), whereas 17 (34%) of 50 patients with webs versus six (12%) of 50 controls (p < 0.009) had moderate/marked reflux. Thus, the prevalence of moderate/marked gastroesophageal reflux was significantly greater in patients with webs than in the controls. However, no significant differences were found in the prevalence of mild gastroesophageal reflux, hiatal hernias, reflux esophagitis, or abnormal esophageal motility. Conclusion: We found a significant association between cervical esophageal webs and gastroesophageal reflux independent of age, sex, or symptomatology. Radiologists should be aware of this association, so that patients with cervical esophageal webs on pharyngoesophagography are evaluated for gastroesophageal reflux at the time of the barium study or advised to undergo further testing for gastroesophageal reflux disease. Received: 15 December 2000/Accepted: 24 January 2001     

Gastroesophageal reflux and bronchial asthma

Gastroesophageal reflux was established in 12 out of 38 patients with infectious allergic bronchial asthma out of exacerbation. According to intraesophageal pH-metry, it turned out appreciable in half of the cases. Prospective observations conducted for up to 8 years made it possible to recognize bronchial asthma in 9 out of 63 patients having initial reflux without any bronchopulmonary alterations. Diminution of the tone of the inferior sphincter of the esophagus proved by electromanometry should be regarded as the leading mechanism by which gastroesophageal reflux developed in bronchial asthma patients. In patients having gastroesophageal reflux without bronchopulmonary pathology, the tone of the upper sphincter of the esophagus was normal or elevated whereas in bronchial asthma patients with reflux, the tone of the superesophageal sphincter was naturally lowered, causing microaspiration into the bronchi of the gastric contents flown to the esophagus. It is desirable that metoclopramide (cerucal) which increases the initially reduced tone of the esophageal sphincters may be included into a complex of therapeutic measures elaborated for patients with associated bronchial asthma and gastroesophageal reflux.     

Lansoprazole-induced improvement of esophageal submucosal injury

The proton pumpvinhibitor, lansoprazole, is reported to have acid secretion inhibiting effect as well as anti-inflammatory effects such as inhibition of cytokine secretion from inflammatory cells. Clinically, excellent efficacy of lansoprazole is reported for not only gastric ulcer but also gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Since GERD is categorized endoscopically into erosive esophagitis and non-erosive reflux disease, it is important to make accurate assessment of any improvement in the inflammatory process when using endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) capable of visualizing the submucosal structure. We report here our experience in assessing the effect of treatment with lansoprazole on esophageal wall structure using EUS in patients with GERD. At baseline (before treatment), EUS showed abnormalities in the mucosa, submucosa and muscularis propria caused by inflammation, thickening of the entire esophageal wall and changes in the contractile properties of esophageal smooth muscles reflecting the effects of inflammation on the entire wall of the lower esophagus in reflux esophagitis regardless of whether it is erosive or endoscopically-negative. Treatment with lansoprazole resulted in normalization of esophageal wall structure and improvement of motility, suggesting that lansoprazole improves not only mucosal inflammation but also submucosal inflammation in GERD.     

Chest pain associated with esophageal disease

When a patient presents with anginalike chest pain, the first objective is to rule out heart disease. Once cardiac problems have been ruled out, the second objective is to determine whether the history and/or symptoms suggest an esophageal abnormality. The diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux-associated chest pain can occasionally be made from barium radiographic or endoscopic findings. A series of additional esophageal tests--motility studies, Bernstein test, edrophonium test, and balloon distention test--may be performed to help ascertain whether the pain stems from the esophagus. Reassurance should precede specific drug therapy. If any of the test results suggest gastroesophageal reflux, a trial of therapy for this indication, eg, a histamine2 receptor blocker, should be initiated. An esophageal motility disorder may be treated with an anticholinergic agent, nitro-glycerinlike product, or mild tranquilizer. If necessary, use of a calcium channel blocker may be appropriate.     

Barrett食管患者幽门螺杆菌感染率的Meta分析

目的分析Barrett食管患者幽门螺杆菌感染率及caga阳性的幽门螺杆菌感染率，并与内镜检查正常者和胃食管反流病患者比较，探讨幽门螺杆菌（Helicobacter pylori，Hp）感染与Barrett食管的关系。方法计算机检索MEDLINE和EMbase数据库至2008年2月，纳入比较Barrett食管患者和内镜检查正常者及胃食管反流病（gastroesophageal reflux disease，GERD）患者Hp感染率的病例对照研究或队列研究。统计分析采用RevMan4．2．8，计算比值比OR（95％CI）。结果共纳入19篇文献，包括16篇病例对照研究和3篇队列研究。病例对照研究分析结果显示，Barrett食管患者比内镜检查正常者Hp感染率低[OR0．56，95％CI（0．40，0．79）]，与GERD患者相比差异无统计学意义[OR0．86，95％CI（0．74，1．00）]。队列研究的分析结果显示，Barrett食管患者与内镜检查正常者及GERD患者相比Hp感染率差异无统计学意义[OR1．12，95％CI（0．77，1．61）；OR1．10，95％CI（0．32，3．83）]。cagA阳性Hp感染率较内镜正常者及GERD患者低[OR0．30，95％CI（0．12，0．74）；OR0．55，95％CI（0．33，0．94）]。病例对照研究长节段较短节段Barrett食管Hp感染率低[OR0．32，95％CI（0．16，0．66）]。而队列研究结果显示，长节段较短节段Barrett食管患者Hp感染率差异无统计学意义[OR0．66，95％CI（0．29，1．48）]。结论Barrett食管患者和GERD患者Hp感染率无差别，Barrett食管患者Hp感染率，特别是cagA阳性Hp菌株感染率较内镜检查正常者明显减少。     

Schatzki环研究进展

Schatzki环(SR)是一种食管贲门交界处的黏膜环,可引起食管狭窄,是间歇性固体食物吞咽困难、食物嵌顿最常见原因之一。其病因尚不明确,可能与胃食管反流有关。SR可与食管裂孔疝、Barrett食管及嗜酸细胞性食管炎等一些食管疾病并存。其最主要的诊断方法是上消化道钡剂造影。有症状的SR可以使用抑酸药物治疗、内镜下治疗及外科手术。     

In vivo endoscopic optical coherence tomography of esophagitis, Barrett's esophagus, and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: We studied the feasibility of endoscopic optical coherence tomography imaging in esophageal disorders, including Barrett's esophagus and Barrett-related adenocarcinoma. Optical coherence tomography is a high-resolution cross-sectional imaging technique with a resolution of almost 10 microm. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The mucosal architecture of reflux esophagitis (n = 9) and Barrett's esophagus (n = 9) including Barrett-related esophageal cancer (n = 6) was studied by optical coherence tomography imaging. RESULTS: In different stages of reflux esophagitis edema, fibrinoid deposits, or loss of the epithelial layer were observed. Optical coherence tomography images of Barrett's esophagus substantially differed from normal esophagus, reflux esophagitis, and esophageal carcinoma. A stratified structure of the mucosa was still preserved in Barrett's esophagus. However, images of Barrett-related cancer lacked the regular structure of the esophagus. CONCLUSIONS: The high consistency of the first optical coherence tomography findings, the resolution of up to 10 microm, and the distinct pattern of normal, inflammatory, premalignant and malignant tissues make optical coherence tomography a promising method for endoscopically obtained optical biopsy.