心脏介入性治疗中并发急性心脏压塞的诊断与治疗体会

目的 总结心脏介入性治疗中发生急性心脏压塞诊断和处理的经验与教训。方法 回顾性分析1986年1月至2003年6月1442例心脏病介入手术导致急性心脏压塞的资料。结果 4例患者在介入治疗术中或术后即刻出现胸闷、烦躁、大汗淋漓、血压下降、心率加快或减慢，X线示心脏搏动减弱或超声心动图示心包积液，诊断为急性心脏压塞，发生率0．3％，其中1例发生在植入起搏器术后即刻，1例在二尖瓣球囊扩张行房间隔穿刺时，2例发生于射频导管消融过程中。3例经心包穿刺引流成功，1例因射频导管消融导致左心房穿孔，心包穿刺失败，未能及时开胸切开心包，患者死亡。结论 心脏病介入性治疗操作术中并发急性心脏压塞可危及生命，及时诊断与处理非常重要，心包穿刺引流是首选的方法，必要时应及时开胸切开心包减压。     

Effusive-constrictive hemodynamic pattern due to neoplastic involvement of the pericardium

Eight patients with metastatic malignancy of the pericardium who demonstrated the hemodynamics of subacute effusive-constrictive pericarditis were studied. All patients had clinical evidence of cardiac tamponade due to malignant pericardial effusion and were referred for therapeutic pericardiocentesis. In six in whom pericardiocentesis was successfully performed, right atrial pressure remained elevated after pericardiocentesis and return of the intrapericardial pressure to zero; in these patients, hemodynamic data were initially compatible with tamponade but suggested constriction after removal of the pericardial fluid. In the remaining two patients, echocardiography revealed pericardial fluid, but attempted pericardiocentesis was unsuccessful. In these two patients, the hemodynamic data suggested pericardial constriction; subsequent pathologic examination revealed neoplastic involvement of the visceral pericardium. Thus, subacute effusive-constrictive pericarditis, previously recognized as a complication of tuberculosis or mediastinal radiation, may also be due to metastatic malignancy. The syndrome can readily be demonstrated when right heart catheterization is performed in conjunction with pericardiocentesis.     

Kardiogener Schock 4 Stunden nach akut-PTCA bei Hinterwandinfarkt

We report the case of a 67 year old male with acute inferior myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock 4 h after successful PCI of the target vessel. Transthoracic echocardiography revealed pericardial tamponade due to guiding wire-induced coronary perforation. Echocardiographically guided pericardiocentesis was performed immediately and after evacuation of 80 ml of hemorrhagic pericardial fluid haemodynamics stabilized. We conclude that coronary perforation could become symptomatic even hours after PCI and therefore should be considered in all forms of post procedural cardiogenic shock. The use of echocontrast media facilitates emergency pericardiocentesis.     

Closure of guide wire-induced coronary artery perforation with a two-component fibrin glue.

Perforation or rupture of a coronary artery with subsequent pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade is a potentially life-threatening complication of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Several emergency treatment strategies exist to close the perforation including reversal of anticoagulation, prolonged balloon inflation, implantation of stent grafts, local injection of thrombogenic molecules, placement of microcoils, or open heart surgery. Here we report on a 66-year-old patient who underwent urgent PCI for acute stent thrombosis in the proximal LAD. The artery was reopened, a new stent implanted successfully, and a GPIIb/IIIa-antagonist was given. Shortly thereafter the patient suffered from cardiac tamponade requiring pericardiocentesis and pericardial drainage. The coronary angiogram indicated a severe guide wire-induced perforation and pericardial effusion originating from a distal diagonal branch segment. Prolonged balloon inflation did not stop the leakage. Therefore the monorail balloon was exchanged for an over-the-wire balloon. A two-component commercial fibrin glue consisting of fibrinogen and thrombin was rapidly but separately injected through the wire channel of the balloon into the distal segment of the diagonal branch. The coronary leak was successfully closed and the patient recovered quickly. In comparison with the previously reported cases of thrombin injection important differences should be noticed: (1) a two-component hemostatic seal was used without reversal of anticoagulation, (2) rapid injection instead of prolonged infusion of the hemostatic drugs was performed, and (3) the rescue technique was applied in a cath lab that routinely uses monorail catheter systems. Therefore we consider this a novel and effective approach for closure of coronary ruptures.     

Coronary perforation during percutaneous coronary intervention

Coronary perforation is an undesirable complication during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). We reviewed the cases of overt coronary perforation in our institute and analyzed their clinical backgrounds, the characteristics of the target lesion, management, and clinical outcomes. Between 1991 and 2005, we experienced 12 cases (0.35%) of coronary perforation in a total of 3415 PCI procedures. The perforation occurred during the use of debulking devices in 3 cases, immediately after stenting in 2, immediately after postdilatation of the stent in 2, and during wiring in 3 cases. Restoration was attempted by long inflation of a balloon in 7 cases, implantation of a covered stent graft in 1, and emergency surgical repair in 1 case. Subsequent cardiac tamponade occurred in 3 patients who required pericardiocentesis, and 1 patient died due to congestive heart failure. Administration of protamine was effective in stopping the bleeding in 6 patients, whereas continuation of antiplatelet therapy resulted in no overt rebleeding. Coronary perforation during PCI is a rare complication but is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Intravenous administration of protamine is effective when it is used in conjunction with nonsurgical devices for initial management of perforation.     

Perforation of a Saphenous Vein Graft Anastomosed at a Y-Configuration to the Left Internal Mammary Artery

Perforation of a saphenous vein graft (SVG) is a rare, yet dreadful complication during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Perforation of a SVG arising at a Y-construction from the left internal mammary artery (LIMA) can be catastrophic since manipulations and material delivery through the single LIMA inflow can aggravate ischemia and accelerate hemodynamic collapse. Prior CABG and pericardial obliteration should not offer reassurance against tamponade, since coronary perforation in these patients may cause the development of loculated pericardial effusions, a complication associated with high mortality. Treating physicians must be alert for potential periprocedural pitfalls during PCI in post-CABG patients and these should be taken into consideration during interventional planning, procedure and follow-up.     

Left internal mammary artery graft perforation due to high-pressure stent deployment

Perforation of newly placed left internal mammary artery (LIMA) grafts due to stent deployment is an infrequent but potentially dangerous complication of coronary interventions. It may lead to brisk hemorrhage and massive cardiac tamponade requiring emergent pericardiocentesis and surgery. We report a case of a LIMA graft perforation following stent deployment with a high-pressure balloon 12 days after surgery. The patient was treated with emergent pericardiocentesis, rapid autotransfusion of the pericardial aspirate into the systemic circulation, and surgical repair of the ruptured vessel. Cathet. Cardiovasc Intervent. 47:199–202, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

经皮冠状动脉介入治疗并发心包积液及心脏压塞的临床分析

目的 了解经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(PCI)中心包积液／心脏压塞发生率、发生的相关因素、处理以及预后，为PCI的正确操作及合理选用器械提供参考。方法 分析了1246例PCI资料，包括住院病历、PCI操作记录、护理记录和影像学资料，判定心包积液／心脏压塞发生原因、时间、临床表现、处理方式和结果。结果 共8例心包积液(0．64％)、3例心脏压塞(0．24％)，其中10例(91％)在导管室确诊，1例(9％)延期发现。冠状动脉造影直接发现导引钢丝和／或球囊致冠状动脉穿孔9例(81．8％)，其中球囊通过冠状动脉破口未扩张2例，球囊通过冠状动脉破口并扩张1例，冠状动脉穿孔多发生在慢性完全闭塞性病变(CTO)；通过临床表现、超声心动图证实起搏电极导线致右心室穿孔2例(18．2％)，均出现在心肌梗死后患者。球囊通过冠状动脉破口并扩张1例，发生迟发性心脏压塞，6h后急诊外科干预引流后治愈；右心室临时起搏电极导管穿破右心室2例，1例行心包穿刺术，另1例心包穿刺后留置猪尾导管引流2d成功治愈。结论 冠状动脉及右心室穿孔是PCI并发心包积液／心脏压塞的主要原因，前者多发生在CTO患者，后者易出现于心肌梗死后患者。正确的操作方法及合理的器械选择可能减少此并发症的发生。冠状动脉穿孔较心室穿孔易于诊断，心包积液／心脏压塞多数能在导管室早期发现，并能得以合理的处理。     

Coronary artery perforation: How to treat it?

Coronary artery perforation fortunately represents a rare complication of coronary catheterization but, if not properly and promptly treated, it is burdened by a high mortality rate. Rates of coronary perforation may be potentially higher when atherectomy devices are used or very complex calcified lesions are treated. Cardiac tamponade constitutes the most severe clinical consequence.We report the case of an intra-stent coronary perforation at the end of revascularization of a non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), followed by an immediate impairment of hemodynamic compensation, due to significant pericardial effusion and subsequent cardiac tamponade.The use of covered stents has revolutionized the management of coronary perforation and this has meant that the use of emergency CABG has decreased over the years with satisfactory immediate and short-term outcomes, reducing the incidence of acute cardiac tamponade and mortality without surgery.     

Pericardial thrombus and cardiac tamponade after pericardiocentesis with intact heart walls

A young patient affected by a lung neoplasm, presented at emergency department with cardiac tamponade, underwent pericardiocentesis with a prompt restoration of hemodynamic stability. An hour later, the patient presented again signs of tamponade, without evidence of fluids in the drainage that was left in pericardial space. The echocardiography revealed an intrapericardial thrombus compressing the right chambers. An emergency pericardiotomy was performed and a large thrombus was removed from the pericardial space; cardiac walls were intact. Echocardiography played a pivotal role for the identification of a pericardial thrombus as a complication of pericardiocentesis.     

Pericardial effusion and tamponade

Pericardial effusion may occur as a result of a variety of clinical conditions, including viral, bacterial, or fungal infections and inflammatory, postinflammatory, autoreactive, and neoplastic processes. More common causes of pericardial effusion and tamponade include malignancy, renal failure, viral and bacterial infectious processes, radiation, aortic dissection, and hypothyroidism. It can also occur after trauma or acute myocardial infarction (as in postpericardiotomy syndrome following cardiac or thoracic surgery) or as an idiopathic pericardial effusion. Although pericardial effusion is common in patients with connective tissue disease, cardiac tamponade is rare. Among medical patients, malignant disease is the most common cause of pericardial effusion with tamponade. Table 1 shows the causes of pericardial tamponade. The effusion fluid may be serous, suppurative, hemorrhagic, or serosanguineous. The pericardial fluid can be a transudate (typically occurring in patients with congestive heart failure) or an exudate. The latter type, which contains a high concentration of proteins and fibrin, can occur with any type of pericarditis, severe infections, or malignancy. Once the diagnosis of pericardial effusion has been made, it is important to determine whether the effusion is creating significant hemodynamic compromise. Asymptomatic patients without hemodynamic compromise, even with large pericardial effusions, do not need to be treated with pericardiocentesis unless there is a need for fluid analysis for diagnostic purposes (eg, in acute bacterial pericarditis, tuberculosis, and neoplasias). The diagnosis of pericardial effusion/tamponade relies on a strong clinical suspicion and is confirmed by echocardiography or other pericardial imaging modalities. Alternatively, when the diagnosis of cardiac tamponade is made, there is a need for emergency drainage of pericardial fluid by pericardiocentesis or surgery to relieve the hemodynamic compromise. Following pericardiocentesis, it is necessary to prevent recurrence of tamponade. Intrapericardial injection of sclerosing agents, surgical pericardiotomy, and percutaneous balloon pericardial window creation are techniques used to prevent reaccumulation of pericardial fluid and recurrence of cardiac tamponade.     

Coronary artery perforation repair using microcoil embolization

An 82-year-old woman undergoing percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty experienced perforation of the terminal portion of the left anterior descending coronary artery caused by guidewire trauma. The coronary artery perforation was successfully closed using a vascular occlusion system consisting of individual thrombogenic coils delivered to the site. Coronary artery perforation (CAP) during percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) has been reported to occur in less than 1% of cases. The incidence seems to be higher with the new interventional devices, e.g., DCA, TEC, and laser CAP may result in pericardial hemorrhage and cardiac tamponade or a coronary artery fistula to either the left or right ventricle. The management of CAP may include prolonged balloon inflations, reversal of anticoagulation, pericardiocentesis, and emergency surgery. Proximal perforations sometimes can be managed with vein covered stents. We describe another option in the treatment of distal CAP using a vascular occlusion system. Cathet. Cardiovasc. Diagn. 43:474–476, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Fatal left ventricular perforation following balloon mitral valvuloplasty

Left ventricular perforation following a balloon mitral valvuloplasty is a rare complication. This paper reports morphological findings in such a case that was fatal. Cardiac tamponade was suspected clinically, but could not be confirmed or treated because of extensive anterior pericardial adhesions related to a previous closed mitral commissurotomy.     

Left ventricular collapse secondary to pericardial effusion treated with pericardicentesis and percutaneous pericardiotomy in severe pulmonary hypertension

A 61-year-old white female, a Jehovah's Witness, with severe pulmonary hypertension, presented with worsening heart failure symptoms. She had a pericardial effusion with left ventricular (LV) diastolic collapse on transthoracic echocardiography. She was not a candidate for surgical pericardial window and therefore underwent pericardiocentesis and percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy with remarkable improvement in her clinical condition and with no recurrence of the effusion. LV diastolic collapse, an atypical presentation of cardiac tamponade, is commonly seen in postoperative patients with localized pericardial effusions. However, outside the surgical setting, isolated LV diastolic collapse is rare. Our case is one of the first cases described in the literature of LV diastolic collapse in the setting of severe pulmonary hypertension treated successfully with pericardiocentesis and percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy .     

Management Strategies in Pericardial Emergencies

BACKGROUND: The most frequent pericardial emergency is cardiac tamponade, but complications of an acute coronary syndrome and aortic dissection may also involve the pericardium. Acute pericarditis can also represent a medical emergency due to chest pain of upsetting intensity. Decompensations in chronic advanced constriction and in the clinical course of purulent pericarditis necessitate critical care as well. DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT: The diagnosis of cardiac tamponade is based on clinical presentation and physical findings, confirmed by echocardiography and cardiac catheterization. Tamponade is an absolute indication for urgent drainage, either by pericardiocentesis or surgical pericardiotomy. The approach for pericardiocentesis can be subxiphoid or intercostal using echocardiographic or fluoroscopic guidance. Urgent drainage, combined with intravenous antibiotics, is also mandatory in suspected purulent pericarditis. If confirmed, it should be combined with intrapericardial rinsing (best by a surgical drainage). Pericardiocentesis is contraindicated in cardiac tamponade complicating aortic dissection. This condition should immediately lead to cardiac surgery. Although pericardiectomy is the only treatment for permanent constriction, this procedure is contraindicated when extensive myocardial fibrosis and/or atrophy are demonstrated. CASE STUDY: Iatrogenic tamponade may occur during percutaneous mitral valvuloplasty, implantation of pacemakers, electrophysiology and radiofrequency ablation procedures, right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy, percutaneous coronary interventions, and rarely during Swan-Ganz catheterization. The authors report on a 79-year-old who suffered coronary perforation and cardiac tamponade during elective stent implantation. Tamponade was successfully treated with pericardiocentesis and implantation of a membrane-covered graft stent. Subsequent recurrent pericarditis/postpericardial injury syndrome with moderate pericardial effusion was initially treated with aspirin and then with aspirin and colchicine. At 6 months, the patient is in stable remission even after withdrawal of colchicine. CONCLUSION: Natural history of pericardial diseases can be complicated with pericardial emergencies requiring prompt diagnosis, intensive care with hemodynamic monitoring, and early aggressive management. Medical supportive measures, drainage of pericardial effusion, surgical pericardiotomy, and pericardiectomy should be applied when needed with no delay. This procedural approach also applies to iatrogenic interventions leading to tamponade.     

Neoplastic pericardial effusion

Neoplastic pericardial effusion is a serious and common clinical disorder encountered by cardiologists, cardiothoracic surgeons, oncologists, and radiation oncologists. It may develop from direct extension or metastatic spread of the underlying malignancy, from an opportunistic infection, or from a complication of radiation therapy or chemotherapeutic toxicity. The clinical presentation varies, and the patient may be hemodynamically unstable in the setting of constrictive pericarditis and cardiac tamponade. The management depends on the patient's prognosis and varies from pericardiocentesis, sclerotherapy, and balloon pericardiotomy to cardiothoracic surgery. Patients with neoplastic pericardial effusion face a grave prognosis, as their malignancy is usually more advanced. This review article discusses the epidemiology and etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, management, and prognosis of neoplastic pericardial effusion.     

Complete left atrial obliteration due to localized tamponade after coronary artery perforation during PTCA

Coronary artery perforation is a rare but important complication of percutaneous revascularization (PTCA). Clinical events following coronary perforation may include cardiac tamponade. After bypass graft operation (CABG), however, cardiac tamponade with subsequent hemodynamic instability is unusual due to the development of pericardial adhesions. We report an unusual case of localized tamponade after coronary artery perforation during PTCA in a patient with previous CABG. Cathet. Cardiovasc. Diagn. 45:61–63, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Late cardiac perforation following percutaneous atrial septal defect closure using the Solysafe device

Percutaneous atrial septal defect closure has been demonstrated to be a safe and effective procedure. Many different devices have been utilized during the last decade with a low complication rate. We report a patient who presented with cardiac tamponade 6 months after ASD closure using the Solysafe device. Emergency surgery demonstrated a disarticulated device as well as a broken wire migrated into the pericardial space causing cardiac perforation and tamponade. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of late cardiac perforation following ASD closure using the Solysafe device.     

Transcardiac pericardiocentesis: an emergency life-saving technique for cardiac tamponade

Life-threatening cardiac tamponade is one of the most serious complications of catheter-based cardiac procedures. Although most cases can be effectively treated by percutaneous pericardiocentesis, urgent surgical drainage is required in unsuccessful cases. Rarely, in collapsed patients, the delay for surgery, however minimal, may be fatal. We describe a technique whereby life-saving pericardial drainage was rapidly achieved via a novel transcardiac approach, using the transseptal puncture kit, after failure of conventional pericardiocentesis in a patient with procedure-related acute tamponade who rapidly deteriorated and developed cardiorespiratory arrest within a few minutes. Although surgical repair for the perforation had to be performed subsequently, the patient survived without sequelae. This transcardiac approach may be an important and potentially life-saving adjunctive technique after failure of conventional pericardiocentesis in rapidly deteriorating or extremely unstable patients.     

Transluminal coronary angioplasty complicated by coronary artery perforation

Transluminal coronary angioplasty may be associated with complications resulting from the dilatation catheter and inflation of the balloon. The most common complications are dissection, occlusion, and coronary spasm. We report an unusual complication of coronary artery perforation by the dilatation catheter resulting in acute pericardial tamponade. The complication was immediately recognized and confirmed by dye injection and hemodynamic measurements. Pericardiocentesis was performed, followed by successful coronary bypass surgery. The reasons for the perforation are unclear. We postulate that the acute angle of the perforated vessel was an important factor for this complication. The importance of a standby cardiac surgeon and operating room is emphasized.