Impact of Portion Control Tools on Portion Size Awareness,Choice and Intake: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Portion control utensils and reduced size tableware amongst other tools, have the potential to guide portion size intake but their effectiveness remains controversial. This review evaluated the breadth and effectiveness of existing portion control tools on learning/awareness of appropriate portion sizes (PS), PS choice, and PS consumption. Additional outcomes were energy intake and weight loss. Published records between 2006–2020 (n = 1241) were identified from PubMed and WoS, and 36 publications comparing the impact of portion control tools on awareness (n = 7 studies), selection/choice (n = 14), intake plus related measures (n = 21) and weight status (n = 9) were analyzed. Non-tableware tools included cooking utensils, educational aids and computerized applications. Tableware included mostly reduced-size and portion control/calibrated crockery/cutlery. Overall, 55% of studies reported a significant impact of using a tool (typically smaller bowl, fork or glass; or calibrated plate). A meta-analysis of 28 articles confirmed an overall effect of tool on food intake (d = –0.22; 95%CI: –0.38, –0.06; 21 comparisons), mostly driven by combinations of reduced-size bowls and spoons decreasing serving sizes (d = –0.48; 95%CI: –0.72, –0.24; 8 comparisons) and consumed amounts/energy (d = –0.22; 95%CI: –0.39, –0.05, 9 comparisons), but not by reduced-size plates (d = –0.03; 95%CI: –0.12, 0.06, 7 comparisons). Portion control tools marginally induced weight loss (d = –0.20; 95%CI: –0.37, –0.03; 9 comparisons), especially driven by calibrated tableware. No impact was detected on PS awareness; however, few studies quantified this outcome. Specific portion control tools may be helpful as potentially effective instruments for inclusion as part of weight loss interventions. Reduced size plates per se may not be as effective as previously suggested.     

The Role of Dishware Size in the Perception of Portion Size in Children and Adolescents with Obesity

Purpose: The influence of dishware on portion size perception in children and adolescents is inconclusive. This study investigated how children and adolescents with both obesity and a normal weight perceived portion size in different sized and shaped dishware items. Methods: The study included 60 children and adolescents with overweight and obesity (OBE) and 27 children and adolescents with normal weight (NW) aged from 9 to 17 years. The participants estimated quantities in three pairs of drinking glasses, one pair of bowls and two pairs of plates which varied in size and shape. The children were instructed to state intuitively which portion they would choose for big or small thirst/hunger. Thereafter they were asked to determine the exact amount by answering which dishware item contained the larger/smaller portion (cognitive evaluation). Results: There were no substantial differences in the intuitive evaluation of portion sizes between OBE and NW. During the cognitive evaluation, OBE estimated the amount of water in the glasses more correctly compared to NW (61% vs. 43%; p = 0.008); OBE estimated the amount of lentils in the bowls and on the plates significantly less correctly (39%) compared to NW (56%; p = 0.013). Conclusions: Habit formation and environmental stimuli might play a greater role in estimating food amounts in dishware than the child’s and adolescent’s body weight.     

The portion size effect and overconsumption – towards downsizing solutions for children and adolescents

Portion sizes of foods offered to consumers have increased at the same time as overweight and obesity levels have risen. It has been suggested that large portions of high energy density (HED) foods increase total energy intake and that this is not compensated for in the short‐ to medium‐term, potentially promoting weight gain. In the laboratory setting, offering large portions of HED foods increases overall energy intake in both children and adults. This phenomenon is known as the portion size effect (PSE), and it is robust, reliable and enduring. The possible impact of the PSE is that large portions served over time may facilitate overeating and could contribute to overweight and obesity. Explanations for the PSE vary from simple heuristics, such as the tendency to clear the plate, to more complex biobehavioural processes, including individual differences in susceptibility to external food cues through eating traits. Consumers may eat in accordance with available consumption norms or eat opportunistically when large portions are made available. An obvious solution to the PSE is to ‘downsize’ HED meal items and snacks, but whether this strategy is acceptable or feasible is not clear. In adults, the effects of downsizing are mixed and for children and adolescents, as yet unclear. The contention is that for those who are still learning about social norms and appropriate portions, there remains the potential to counter the PSE through downsizing strategies.     

混合固相萃取柱净化-气相色谱质谱联用法快速测定果蔬中10种农药残留的研究

目的:建立果蔬中10种除草剂、杀菌剂、杀虫剂农残的混合固相萃取柱-气相色谱质谱联用分析方法。方法:样品经乙腈提取,盐析,活性炭-氨基混合柱净化,采用气相色谱-质谱测定,基质匹配外标法定量。结果:在0.05μg/ml～2.00μg/ml范围内,相关系数r>0.992,样品在0.05 mg/kg～0.50 mg/kg范围内加标,平均回收率在79.77%～118.33%之间,相对标准偏差(RSD)为3.17%～11.35%,检测限(LOD)在0.001 mg/kg～0.006 mg/kg之间。结论:该方法快速、可操作性强、净化效果较好,可同时满足蔬菜水果中多种农药残留的检测需要。     

The Use of Portion Control Plates to Promote Healthy Eating and Diet-Related Outcomes: A Scoping Review

The role of portion control plates in achieving healthy diets is unclear. The aim of this scoping review was to systematically map findings from peer reviewed and grey literature to provide evidence for the use of portion control plates to promote healthy eating and nutrition-related knowledge in children and adults. A secondary aim was to review the design characteristics of portion control plates. The search was conducted in four databases, including Medline, CINAHL, Embase, and PsycInfo, and grey literature sources following the PRISMA scoping review guidelines. A total of 22 articles comprising 23 intervention studies and 8 from grey literature were included. It was found that the various two-dimensional and three-dimensional portion control plates examined were effective tools for better portion size selection in healthy children and adults. Most portion control plates dedicated half the plate to vegetables, a quarter to protein, and a quarter to carbohydrates. The use of portion control plates in nutrition interventions appears to promote weight loss among those with overweight and obesity and/or type 2 diabetes. However, portion control plates were mostly used as part of multicomponent interventions and the effectiveness of the portion control plate as a stand-alone educational resource or portion control tool alone was uncertain. Further interventional research is indicated to investigate portion plates as tools to improve dietary behaviours and food consumption at the population level.     

The effect of practical portion size measurement aids on the accuracy of portion size estimates made by young adults

A barrier to controlling the amount of food consumed may be the difficulty consumers have in accurately estimating portion sizes. Although portion size measurement aids (PSMAs) can improve estimation accuracy, their bulk and/or cost tends to make them impractical for regular use. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect on portion size estimation accuracy of two practical PSMAs: a 2-D PSMA (life size picture of tennis and golf balls) and 3-D PSMAs (tennis and golf balls). Young adults were randomly assigned to one of two groups and estimated the portion sizes of 36 foods divided into three equal sets. PSMAs were not used to estimate portion sizes in Food Set 1. Study group 1 (n = 57) used the 2-D PSMA and study group 2 (n = 56) used the 3-D PSMAs to estimate the portion sizes in Food Set 2. Neither group used PSMAs to estimate portion sizes in Food Set 3. Repeated measures anova indicated that both groups significantly improved estimation accuracy between Food Sets 1 and 2 and between Foods Sets 1 and 3. Thus, even short-term exposure to practical PSMAs may improve estimation accuracy and these improvements persist when the PSMA is no longer available. However, the accuracy rate for Food Set 2 was only about 60% indicating that a great deal of estimation error remains.     

Individual and familial factors associated with fruit and vegetable intake among 11‐ to 14‐year‐old Romanian school children

The healthy nutrition guidelines proposed by international research institutes and the World Health Organization recommend a daily intake of fruit and vegetables of at least 400 g, representing five servings a day (each serving contains around 80 g). Moreover, the recommendations stress the importance of consuming both fruit and vegetables daily, preferably at least two portions of fruit and three portions of vegetables per day. To efficiently develop interventions for promoting fruit and vegetable consumption among children, it is essential to identify and understand the factors that influence these behaviours. The present study aims at identifying the individual and familial factors which influence fruit and vegetable consumption among Romanian children. A cross‐sectional survey by means of anonymous questionnaires was conducted among 361 school children, aged 11–14, from Cluj‐Napoca, Romania (April–May 2011). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess the correlates of fruit and vegetable intake. The results show that 44.6% of the children met the recommendations regarding fruit intake, while 9.1% of the children declared eating the daily recommended portions of vegetables. Knowledge regarding the recommended number of daily servings and higher self‐efficacy concerning the intake of fruit and vegetables every day were positively associated with higher consumption of fruit and vegetables. Fruit preference also influenced positively the consumption of fruit. The familial factor associated with vegetable intake was the perceived behaviour of the mother, while fruit intake was higher among children who declared higher fruit availability at home. Hence, it is necessary to develop in Romania nutrition interventions addressing the determinants of fruit and vegetable intake as identified by this study; these interventions should target both children and parents.     

Validation of a self-completion measure of breakfast foods, snacks and fruits and vegetables consumed by 9- to 11-year-old schoolchildren

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the validity and reliability of a dietary recall questionnaire, designed for group-level comparisons of foods eaten at breakfast and intake of fruits, vegetables, sweet items and crisps. DESIGN: Validity was assessed relative to 24-h dietary recall interviews, and reliability by comparing the baseline data with 4-month follow-up data. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: Fifty-eight schools took part in the validity assessments, with 374 children completing both measures. Reliability was assessed using 29 schools, with 1233 children at baseline and 1033 at follow-up. Children were aged 9-11 years and schools were located in socio-economically deprived areas of Wales. RESULTS: Results indicated moderate to substantial agreements for most foods eaten at breakfast on the day of reporting and fair to moderate agreements for breakfast foods the previous day. For items throughout the rest of the previous day, agreement was fair to substantial during school hours, but slight after school. Correlations were moderate in terms of 'healthy' items and 'unhealthy' items consumed at breakfast on the day of reporting, but weaker for the previous breakfast. Correlations between measures in terms of fruits, vegetables, sweet items and crisps throughout the rest of the previous day were fair to moderate. The measure demonstrated fair to substantial group-level reliability. CONCLUSIONS: The questionnaire, while subject to a number of limitations, gives an adequately valid and reliable overview of selected aspects of children's diet. It is likely to be of value at group-level in randomized controlled trials of school-based interventions.     

固相萃取-气相色谱法快速测定蔬果中23种有机磷农药残留

目的:建立蔬果中23种有机磷农药残留GC-FPD分析方法。方法:采乙腈均浆提取样品中的有机磷类农药,通过固相萃取仪提取净化,用FPD检测器进行检测。结果:23种有机磷农药在0.05μg/ml～2.0μg/ml范围内均有较好的线性相关系数均在0.99以上,检出限为0.2μg/L～10.0μg/L,23种有机磷农药回收率加标0.5 mg/kg时,为73.5%～99.5%之间,加标2.0 mg/kg时,为80.5%～102.4%之间,变异系数RSD,加标0.5 mg/kg时,为1.1%～4.6%之间,加标2.0 mg/kg时,为1.2%～5.1%之间。结论:此法简便,快速,净化效果好,回收率高,可同时测定水果、蔬菜中的多种有机磷农药残留。     

分光光度法测定瓜果类蔬菜中铁的含量

用分光光度法直接测定瓜果类蔬菜中铁的含量 ,方法简便快速准确 ,对指导人们合理食用瓜果类蔬菜进行补铁及进一步开发瓜果类蔬菜产品提供了可靠的理论依据。     

The portion size effect and overconsumption – towards downsizing solutions for children and adolescents – An update

The portion size effect (PSE), where more is eaten when large amounts are offered, is robust, reliable and enduring. Although it is not known what drives the PSE, amount served may act as a guide to how much should be eaten. Over time, consumers become accustomed to particular amounts of food as the ‘social norm’ and so large portion sizes are treated as typical. For children and adolescents who are forming eating habits, long‐term exposure to large portion sizes of snacks and meal items may encourage overconsumption. Therefore, offering smaller portions to suit the age and stage of children and young people should offer a potential solution to the PSE. We have developed a series of downsizing strategies to test the effect of providing smaller portions of snacks and meal items in pre‐school children, adolescents and families. One potential consequence of downsizing is that compensation may occur, in which smaller portion sizes drive intake of other foods. Therefore, in examining downsizing strategies, measures of compensation elsewhere in the meal or across the overall diet are important. Our studies indicate that it is both feasible and desirable to offer ‘me‐sized’, smaller portions for children to facilitate portion control as food preferences and eating habits are developed. However, strategies for young adults and adolescents are more challenging and require further investigation.     

The protective role of fruits and vegetables against radiation-induced cancer

The role of fruits and vegetables in protecting against radiation-induced cancer and the positive evidence from epidemiology and ancillary investigations are discussed in this review. The recently reported Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb survivor studies provide strong evidence for the protective role of fruits and vegetables against radiation-induced cancer. The anticarcinogenic substances contained in, and the anticarcinogenic mechanisms proposed for, fruits and vegetables are reviewed. The anticarcinogenic effectiveness of fruits and vegetables are compared with that of dietary supplements. The reasons for the observed superiority of fruits and vegetables are advanced.     

Caucasian and Mexican American low‐income children's thoughts about vegetables and fruits

The objective of this study was to determine behavioral, personal, and environmental factors that influence low‐income children's fruit and vegetable intake. Focus group questions were developed using the social cognitive theory (SCT). Four Caucasian (27 children) and six Mexican American focus groups (30 children) were conducted. Mexican‐American children stated they had the ability to prepare vegetables and fruits whereas Caucasian children expressed they would rather have their parents do the preparation. This is an example of the behavioral capability construct of SCT. Both ethnic groups mentioned they did not know where vegetables and fruits were stored in the home and this is an environmental construct of SCT. Personal factors of the SCT included Caucasian children preferring to add peanut butter and Ranch dip to vegetables compared to Mexican‐American children preferring to add salt, lime, and chili to vegetables. Sweetness, sourness, juiciness, and crunchiness were seen as good characteristics. All focus groups perceived vegetables and fruits as healthy. All of these issues need to be considered when developing nutrition programming for children.     

Increasing fruits and vegetables in midlife women: a feasibility study

The positive link between bone health and fruit/vegetable consumption has been attributed to the lower renal acid load of a diet high in alkaline-forming fruit/vegetables. Other important dietary determinants of bone health include micronutrients and bioactives found in fruit/vegetables. We hypothesized that increased intake of fruit/vegetables to 9 or more servings a day would lower net endogenous acid production (NEAP) significantly (~20 mEq/d) and increase urine pH (0.5 pH units). This 8-week feasibility study investigated if 21 midlife women (age, 40-65 years) currently consuming 5 or less servings a day of fruit/vegetables could increase their intake to 9 or more servings a day to substantially lower NEAP and include specific vegetables daily. Three-day diet diaries were completed at baseline and the end of the study and assessed for NEAP (estimated) and number of servings from all food groups. Urine pH dipsticks were provided for the participants to assess and record their fasting urine pH daily (second void). Seventy-six percent of women achieved the study aim, which was to increase to 9 or more servings of fruit/vegetables for at least 5 d/wk. There was a reduction in the number of bread/cereal servings. Net endogenous acid production (estimated) was reduced significantly, with a mean urine pH increase of 0.68 pH units (95% confidence interval, 0.46-1.14); however, daily urine pH measures showed high variability. This study demonstrated that a group of midlife women can change their diet for 8 weeks by significantly increasing fruit/vegetable servings and include specific “bone friendly” vegetables daily, resulting in a significant decrease in estimated dietary NEAP and an increase in urine pH.