Procalcitonin kinetics in the prognosis of severe community-acquired pneumonia

Objectives Procalcitonin (PCT) kinetics is a good prognosis marker in infectious diseases, but few studies of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) have been performed in intensive care units (ICU). We analyzed the relationship between PCT kinetics and outcome in ICU patients with severe CAP. Design and setting Prospective observational study in a 16-bed university hospital ICU. Patients 100 critically ill patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Measurements and results Median PCT was 5.2 ng/ml on day 1 and 2.9 ng/ml on day 3. It increased from day 1 to day 3 in nonsurvivors but decreased in survivors. In multivariate analysis four variables were associated with death: invasive ventilation (odds ratio 10−), multilobar involvement (5.6−), LOD score (6.9−), and PCT increase from day 1 to day 3 (4.5−). In intubated patients with a PCT level below 0.95 ng/ml on day 3 the survival rate was 95%. Conclusion Increased PCT from day 1 to day 3 in severe CAP is a poor prognosis factor. A PCT level less than 0.95 ng/ml on day 3 in intubated patients is associated with a favorable outcome. Electronic supplementary material The electronic reference of this article is . The online full-text version of this article includes electronic supplementary material. This material is available to authorised users and can be accessed by means of the ESM button beneath the abstract or in the structured full-text article. To cite or link to this article you can use the above reference.     

Oral meal intake as a prognostic predictor of community-acquired pneumonia: A retrospective cohort study

IntroductionThe association between oral intake volume and prognosis has not been studied in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).MethodsWe retrospectively examined 503 hospitalized CAP patients to evaluate whether early-phase meal intake (EMI) (within the first 24 h after hospitalization) and maximum meal intake (MMI) (on the day during hospitalization) are useful prognostic predictors.ResultsOf the 503 patients, 40 (8.0%) died within 30 days. Area under the curve (AUC) for prognosis was comparable between EMI, A-DROP, and serum albumin [EMI: 0.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.75–0.84; A-DROP: 0.77, 95% CI 0.71–0.83; Serum albumin: 0.72, 95% CI 0.64–0.79]. Mortality rate was <1% in patients with EMI ≥ 50%. Univariate analysis showed that patients with EMI < 50% showed poor prognosis [odds ratio 53.4, 95% CI 7.2–392.2]. Multivariate analysis showed that EMI was an independent prognostic predictor [odds ratio 23.6, 95% CI 3.11–179.7]. AUC of MMI for prognosis was 0.94 (95% CI 0.91–0.96); mortality rate was <1% for patients who ingested ≥50% of meals on any day during hospitalization. We defined ingesting ≥50% of meals on any day during hospitalization as oral intake stability. Multivariate analyses revealed an association between oral intake stability and prognosis. Odds ratio of oral intake stability for prognosis was higher than that of conventional evaluations (vital sign and CRP level stability). Fewer days were required to reach oral intake stability than to reach vital sign and CRP level stability.ConclusionsOral intake is a simple, non-invasive, cost-free, and powerful prognostic predictor for patients with CAP.     

急诊医疗保健相关性肺炎与社区获得性肺炎的多中心比较研究

目的:探讨急诊医疗保健相关性肺炎（healthcare-associated pneumonia, HCAP）与社区获得性肺炎（community-acquired pneumonia,CAP）的差别,分析HCAP在我国急诊科是否为一个相对独立的肺炎类型。方法:回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京天坛医院、首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院和北京积水潭医院回龙观院区2018年9月至2019年5月入住急诊的HCAP及CAP患者的临床资料,采集患者一般资料、基础疾病种类、入院24 h内实验室检查、病原学检查结果、经验性抗感染治疗方案、是否机械通气、临床转归等。应用肺炎严重指数（pneumonia severity index, PSI）对肺炎严重程度进行评估。计量资料采用均数±标准差表示,两组间比较采用 t检验,计数资料比较采用 χ2检验,以 P<0.05为差异有统计学意义。 结果:纳入HCAP和CAP患者各105例。HCAP组合并两种以上基础疾病例数较多,外周血白细胞计数、血红蛋白水平异常人数及血乳酸水平两组间差异有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）;HCAP组PSI评分为（134.0±26.3）分,高于CAP组（113.0±16.4）分,Ⅳ级少于CAP组,Ⅴ级多于CAP组,差异有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）。HCAP组分离多耐药菌株73株（69.52%）,CAP组55株（52.38%）;HCAP组鲍曼不动杆菌多于CAP组,CAP组肺炎链球菌、肺炎克雷伯杆菌、大肠埃希菌多于HCAP组;HCAP组铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南耐药率为22.2%,高于CAP组的10.0%,鲍曼不动杆菌对头孢哌酮/舒巴坦耐药率为27.3%,低于CAP组的54.5%,其对美罗培南耐药率为45.5%,低于CAP组的72.7%;HCAP组初始经验性抗感染治疗应用碳青霉烯比例为21.00%,高于CAP组的10.48%,差异均有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）。HCAP组有创机械通气比例（21.00%）,高于CAP组（7.62%）,HCAP组病死率（21.00%）,高于CAP组（8.57%）,均 P<0.05。 结论:急诊HCAP患者合并多种基础疾病;病原菌耐药率高,初始经验性抗感染治疗需要更高级的药物;机械通气比例和病死率高。在我国急诊HCAP是一个相对独立的肺炎类型。     

急诊医疗保健相关性肺炎与社区获得性肺炎的多中心比较研究

目的:探讨急诊医疗保健相关性肺炎（healthcare-associated pneumonia, HCAP）与社区获得性肺炎（community-acquired pneumonia,CAP）的差别,分析HCAP在我国急诊科是否为一个相对独立的肺炎类型。方法:回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京天坛医院、首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院和北京积水潭医院回龙观院区2018年9月至2019年5月入住急诊的HCAP及CAP患者的临床资料,采集患者一般资料、基础疾病种类、入院24 h内实验室检查、病原学检查结果、经验性抗感染治疗方案、是否机械通气、临床转归等。应用肺炎严重指数（pneumonia severity index, PSI）对肺炎严重程度进行评估。计量资料采用均数±标准差表示,两组间比较采用 t检验,计数资料比较采用 χ2检验,以 P<0.05为差异有统计学意义。 结果:纳入HCAP和CAP患者各105例。HCAP组合并两种以上基础疾病例数较多,外周血白细胞计数、血红蛋白水平异常人数及血乳酸水平两组间差异有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）;HCAP组PSI评分为（134.0±26.3）分,高于CAP组（113.0±16.4）分,Ⅳ级少于CAP组,Ⅴ级多于CAP组,差异有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）。HCAP组分离多耐药菌株73株（69.52%）,CAP组55株（52.38%）;HCAP组鲍曼不动杆菌多于CAP组,CAP组肺炎链球菌、肺炎克雷伯杆菌、大肠埃希菌多于HCAP组;HCAP组铜绿假单胞菌对亚胺培南耐药率为22.2%,高于CAP组的10.0%,鲍曼不动杆菌对头孢哌酮/舒巴坦耐药率为27.3%,低于CAP组的54.5%,其对美罗培南耐药率为45.5%,低于CAP组的72.7%;HCAP组初始经验性抗感染治疗应用碳青霉烯比例为21.00%,高于CAP组的10.48%,差异均有统计学意义（均 P<0.05）。HCAP组有创机械通气比例（21.00%）,高于CAP组（7.62%）,HCAP组病死率（21.00%）,高于CAP组（8.57%）,均 P<0.05。 结论:急诊HCAP患者合并多种基础疾病;病原菌耐药率高,初始经验性抗感染治疗需要更高级的药物;机械通气比例和病死率高。在我国急诊HCAP是一个相对独立的肺炎类型。     

Clinical features and outcomes of aspiration pneumonia compared with non-aspiration pneumonia: A retrospective cohort study

Pneumonia is a leading cause of death among elderly patients. Although aspiration pneumonia (AP) commonly occurs with aging, its clinical features and outcomes are still uncertain. The aims of this study were to describe the clinical features and outcomes of AP and to assess whether presence of AP affects clinical outcomes in patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP). We retrospectively analyzed patients with CAP and HCAP hospitalized in our institution in Japan from October 2010 to March 2012. We compared clinical features and outcomes between AP and non-AP, and investigated risk factors for recurrence of pneumonia and death. Of 214 consecutive patients, 100 (46.7%) were diagnosed as having aspiration pneumonia. These patients were older and had lower body mass index, more comorbidities, and poorer Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status (ECOG PS) than the patients with non-AP. Patients with AP had more severe disease, required longer hospital stays, and had a frequent recurrence rate of pneumonia and higher mortality. In multivariate analyses, AP, age, and ECOG PS were related to recurrence of pneumonia, and the prognostic factors were CURB-65 score and ECOG PS. AP was not a significant indicator for prognosis but was the strongest risk factor for recurrence of pneumonia. Clinical background and outcomes including recurrence and mortality of AP were obviously different from those of non-AP; therefore AP should be considered as a distinct subtype of pneumonia, and it is important to prevent the recurrence of pneumonia in the patients with AP.     

Clinical and microbiological characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in northern Thailand

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections are prevalent in Thailand. However, the clinical and microbiological characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in such patients are not completely clear at present. In the present study, we analyzed the characteristics of CAP in 191 HIV-infected patients (192 episodes, 130 males and 61 females, mean age 32.9 years, range: 20–62) who had been admitted to Nakornping Hospital in northern Thailand between December 1996 and January 2002. The mean peripheral blood CD4 lymphocyte count was 68.5/mm³ (range: 0–791). The most common organisms detected in the blood of the subjects were as follows: Penicillium marneffei, 13, Salmonella spp., 5, Cryptococcus neoformans, 4, Staphylococcus aureus, 3, and Rhodococcus equi, 3, and the most common organisms detected in sputum included Haemophilus influenzae, 38, P. marneffei, 10, Streptococcus pneumoniae, 10, R. equi, 9, and S. aureus, 9. Life-threatening meningitis in 5 (cryptococcal in 3 and tuberculous in 2), pneumothorax in 2, and tuberculous lymphadenitis in 1 were also noted, resulting in 21 fatalities (10.9%). The mean peripheral blood CD4 lymphocyte count for cases in which the subject died was 74.8/mm³ (range: 0–340). Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that high age (odds ratio of over 40 years: 15.62) and R. equi infection (odds ratio: 8.14) are related to death of HIV-infected patients with CAP. The above findings indicate that various types of organisms, including mixed organisms, cause CAP in HIV-infected patients in northern Thailand, and high age and R. equi infection seem to be risk factors for death.     

Association between community-acquired pneumonia and platelet indices: A case-control study

Objective: To examine whether the platelet index would be applicable for the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).Methods: In this study, 64 CAP patients (the case group) and 68 healthy children (the control group) were included from 2017 to 2018. Baseline variables were recorded including total white blood cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, red blood cells, platelet, mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and C-reactive protein, and compared between the case group and the control group. The cutoff value, sensitivity, and specificity of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, platelet, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and platelet larger cell ratio were calculated by receiver-operating characteristic curves. Results: The median platelet count of the case group and the control group were (411.09±67.40) mm3 and (334.48±78.15) mm3, respectively (P=0.000). The median neutrophil count of the case group was higher than that of the control group, while the lymphocyte level of the case group was lower. Differences in other variables including the mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate were not statistically significant between the two groups. Conclusions: Due to the different levels of platelet, neutrophil and lymphocyte indices in the case and the control group, these indices can be used simultaneously for the diagnosis of CAP.     

Procalcitonin and severity of community-acquired pneumonia

The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between procalcitonin and the severity and prognosis of community-acquired pneumonia. The subjects were 162 patients with community-acquired pneumonia (disease severity, mild, 39 patients; moderate, 81 patients; severe, 37 patients; and super severe, 5 patients) in whom we examined the serum procalcitonin concentration at the start of treatment; we determined the relationship of procalcitonin status with disease severity and prognosis. The results showed that procalcitonin was positive in 12.8% of the patients with mild disease, 27.1% of the patients with moderate disease, 59.5% of the patients with severe disease, and 80.0% of the patients with super severe disease. The mortality of procalcitonin-positive patients was 37.7%, whereas that of the procalcitonin-negative patients was 12.8%. Based on the above findings, it is concluded that the more severe the community-acquired pneumonia, the higher is the positivity rate for procalcitonin, and the prognosis in procalcitonin-positive patients is worse than that in procalcitonin-negative patients.     

A five-year study of severe community-acquired pneumonia with emphasis on prognosis in patients admitted to an intensive care unit

Objectives To characterize the epidemiology and to determine the prognosis factors in severe community-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to an intensive care unit. Design Retrospective clinical study. Setting Intensive Care and Infectious Diseases Unit of a municipal general hospital of Lille University Medical School. Patients 299 consecutive patients exhibiting severe community-acquired pneumonia. Measurements and results On admission to ICU, 149 patients required mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory failure and 44 exhibited septic shock. Pulmonary involvement was bilateral in 71 patients. There were 260 organisms isolated from 197 patients (65.9%), the most frequent beingStreptococcus pneumoniae (n=80),Staphylococcus spp. (n=57) and Gram-negative bacilli (n=81). Overall mortality was 28.5% (85 patients). According to univariate analysis, mortality was associated with age over 60 years, anticipated death within 5 years, immunosuppression, shock, mechanical ventilation, bilateral pulmonary involvement, bacteremia, neutrophil count <3500/mm³, total serum protein level <45 g/l, serum creatinine >15 mg/l, non-aspiration pneumonia, ineffective initial therapy and complications. Multivariate analysis selected only 5 factors significantly associated with prognosis: anticipated death within 5 years, shock, bacteremia, non-pneumonia-related complications and ineffective initial therapy. Conclusion The effectiveness of the initial therapy appears to be the most significant prognosis factor and, as the one and only related to the initial medical intervention, suggests a need for permanent optimization of our antimicrobial strategies. Study presented at the 6th European Congress on Intensive Care Medicine, 1992, Barcelona, Spain     

Efficacy of corticosteroid treatment for severe community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis

Background

The benefits and adverse effects of corticosteroids in the treatment of severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) have not been well assessed. The aim of this systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis was to evaluate the clinical efficacy of adjuvant corticosteroid therapy in patients with severe CAP.

C反应蛋白在社区获得性肺炎严重度及预后评估中的作用

目的 探讨C反应蛋白(CRP)及肺炎严重指数(PSI)在社区获得性肺炎(CAP)中的变化,以进一步了解CRP在CAP严重度及预后评估中的作用.方法 我院2009年1月至2011年5月住院CAP患者106例,按PSI评分、是否重症CAP、是否≥65岁患者分别分组,测定血清CRP.结果 CRP与PSI评分呈显著正相关(r=0.453 P=0.000); CAP老年组CRP与PSI评分无相关性,非老年组CRP[(81.70 ±75.63)mg/L]与PSI评分[(78.30±42.63)分]呈显著正相关(r=0.489,P＜0.001);CAP重症组PSI评分[(89.24±36.44)分]及CRP[(106.93±74.76)mg/L]与非重症组PSI评分[(53.59±35.41)分]及CRP[(31.34±33.68)mg/L]比较差异均有统计学意义(t值分别为-4.289、-5.934,P均＜0.001).结论 CRP及PSI可作为是否重症CAP分级,且CRP可作为PSI评分系统的一个补充,尤其在非老年患者的预后评估中.     

Risk factors of bacteremia in children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: A nested case-control study

ObjectiveTo assess the risk factors of bacteremia in children hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).Study designThe present, nested, case-control study enrolled a cohort of patients with CAP aged < 18 years who were hospitalized at Tokyo Metropolitan Children’s Medical Center or Tama-Hokubu Medical Center between March 2010 and February 2018. Among the cohort with blood cultures (BCs), patients with bacteremia were identified and matched with five control patients based on their treatment facility, underlying disease, and age. Conditional logistic regression was used to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) of bacteremia for risk factor candidates.ResultsBCs were obtained for 2,383 (84%) of the 2,853 patients in the CAP cohort. Of those with BCs, 34 (1.4%) had bacteremia. S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae accounted for 26 (76%) and four (12%) instances of the bacteremia pathogens, respectively. Bacteremia occurred more frequently among patients hospitalized in the spring than during other seasons (P = 0.022). On multivariate analysis, the severity of pneumonia was not associated with bacteremia incidence (OR: 0.92 [0.30–2.85]) while a white blood cell count > 16,000/μL (OR: 5.90 [2.14–16.3]) was shown to be a significant risk factor. The OR of the need for a ventilator on admission day was significantly high (28.4 [3.02–1374]) on univariate analysis, but the subject pool was too small to determine its significance on multivariate analysis.ConclusionsThe results of the present study supported BC collection in patients with leukocytosis and in those requiring ventilator use on admission.     

Etiology and clinical study of community-acquired pneumonia in 157 hospitalized children

We tried to verify whether the currently employed diagnosis and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in children were appropriate. For this purpose, we created tentative criteria for the classification of pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. We classified the community-acquired pneumonia into ten categories: (1) bacterial, (2) concomitant viral-bacterial, (3) viral, (4) mycoplasmal, (5) concomitant mycoplasmal-bacterial, (6) concomitant mycoplasmal-viral, (7) chlamydial, (8) concomitant chlamydial-bacterial, (9) concomitant chlamydial-viral, and (10) unknown. Children aged 1 month to 13 years with radiographic and clinical evidence of pneumonia were enrolled. Between October 2001 and September 2002, we enrolled 165 patients. The etiologic agents were determined in 126 of the 157 (80.3%) patients who were finally diagnosed with pneumonia. Two blood cultures were positive for Haemophilus influenzae type b and Streptococcus pneumoniae. A viral infection alone was found in 28 of the 157 patients (17.8%), a bacterial (without mycoplasmal) alone infection in 42 (26.8%), a concomitant viral-bacterial infection in 28 (17.8%), and a mycoplasmal infection in 27 (17.2%) patients. RS virus was identified in 28 patients (17.8%), influenza A in 12 (7.6%), parainfluenza 3 in 8 (5.1%), adenovirus in 8 (5.1%), and influenza B and measles virus in 1 patient each. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia. We chose the initial treatment according to clinical and laboratory findings on admission (i.e., patients' age, clinical course, chest X-ray, and laboratory findings). In 68 of the 71 patients with bacterial (without mycoplasmal) pneumonia, an appropriate antibacterial-agent was prescribed. In 25 of the 27 patients with mycoplasmal pneumonia, clindamycin and minocycline were prescribed.     

Validation of JRS atypical pneumonia score in patients with community-acquired Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia

IntroductionThe Japanese Respiratory Society (JRS) atypical pneumonia score is a useful tool for the rapid presumptive diagnosis of atypical pneumonia. We investigated the clinical features of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) due to Chlamydia psittaci and validated the JRS atypical pneumonia score in patients with C. psittaci CAP.MethodsThis study was conducted at 30 institutions and assessed a total of 72 sporadic cases with C. psittaci CAP, 412 cases with Mycoplasma pneumoniae CAP, and 576 cases with Streptococcus pneumoniae CAP.ResultsSixty-two of 72 patients with C. psittaci CAP had a history of avian exposure. Among the six parameters of the JRS score, matching rates of four parameters were significantly lower in the C. psittaci CAP than the M. pneumoniae CAP in the following parameters: age <60 years, no or minor comorbid illness, stubborn or paroxysmal cough, and absence of chest adventitious sounds. The sensitivity of the diagnosis of atypical pneumonia in patients with C. psittaci CAP was significantly lower than the M. pneumoniae CAP (65.3% and 87.4%, p < 0.0001). When the diagnostic sensitivity was analyzed for different ages, the diagnostic sensitivities for the C. psittaci CAP were 90.5% for non-elderly patients and 30.0% for elderly patients.ConclusionsThe JRS atypical pneumonia score is a useful tool for distinguishing between C. psittaci CAP and bacterial CAP in patients aged <60 years, but not in patients aged ≥60 years. A history of avian exposure in middle-aged patients with normal white blood cell count may be suggestive of C. psittaci pneumonia.     

Clinical effect of gatifloxacin, 200 mg daily, on bacterial community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly

The clinical effect of gatifloxacin (GFLX) at 200 mg daily (half of common dosage) on bacterial community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly was examined. Subjects were 30 patients with bacterial community-acquired pneumonia aged 65 years or more (mild, 21 patients; moderate, 9 patients), and GFLX at 100 mg per dose was administered twice daily for 4–14 days. The results included clinical effectiveness in 21 of 21 mildly affected patients (efficacy rate, 100%), in 8 of 9 moderately affected patients (efficacy rate, 88.9%), and 29 of a total of 30 patients (efficacy rate, 96.7%). With regard to bacteriological effect, 28 of 29 strains were eradicated (eradication rate, 96.6%). Abnormal laboratory findings included mild elevations in GPT, GOT, and ALP in only 1 patient. Based on these findings, we concluded that administration of GFLX at 200 mg daily is recommended for bacterial community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly.     

莫西沙星短程治疗社区获得性肺炎

目的评价莫西沙星短程治疗社区获得性肺炎(CAP)的疗效及安全性。方法87例轻中度CAP患者随机分为两组。对照组(传统疗程组)予莫西沙星静脉治疗10 d;短程治疗组予莫西沙星静脉治疗5 d。结果①对照组和短程治疗组痊愈率分别为68.2%(30/44)和65.1%(28/43),临床有效率分别为90.9%(40/44)和88.4%(38/43),细菌清除率分别为88.2%(30/34)和87.9%(29/33);这三个指标中,两组间比较差异均无统计学意义。②对照组和短程治疗组不良反应发生率分别为9.1%(4/44)和7.0%(3/43),两组间比较差异无统计学意义。结论莫西沙星短程治疗社区获得性肺炎效果与莫西沙星传统疗程治疗相似,较安全。     

Mortality in ICU patients with bacterial community-acquired pneumonia: when antibiotics are not enough

Background  It remains uncertain why immunocompetent patients with bacterial community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) die, in spite of adequate antibiotics. Methods  This is a secondary analysis of the CAPUCI database which was a prospective observational multicentre study. Two hundred and twelve immunocompetent patients admitted to 33 Spanish ICUs for CAP were analyzed. Comparisons were made for lifestyle risk factors, comorbidities and severity of illness. ICU mortality was the principal outcome variable. Results  Bacteremic CAP (43.3 vs. 21.1%) and empyema (11.5 vs. 2.2%) were more frequent (P < 0.05) in patients with Streptococcus pneumoniae CAP. Higher rates of adequate empiric therapy (95.8 vs. 75.5%, P < 0.05) were observed in patients with S. pneumoniae CAP. Patients with non-pneumococcal CAP experienced more shock (66.7 vs. 50.8%, P < 0.05), and need for mechanical ventilation (83.3 vs. 61.5%, P < 0.05). ICU mortality was 20.7 and 28% [OR 1.49(0.74–2.98)] among immunocompetent patients with S. pneumoniae (n = 122) and non-pneumococci (n = 90), in spite of initial adequate antibiotic. Multivariable regression analysis in these 184 immunocompetent patients with adequate empirical antibiotic treatment identified the following variables as independently associated with mortality: shock (HR 13.03); acute renal failure (HR 4.79), and APACHE II score higher than 24 (HR 2.22). Conclusions  Mortality remains unacceptably high in immunocompetent patients admitted to the ICU with bacterial pneumonia, despite adequate initial antibiotics and comorbidities management. Patients with shock, acute renal failure and APACHE II score higher than 24 should be considered for inclusion in trials of adjunctive therapy in order to improve CAP survival. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. This article is discussed in the editorial available at: doi:.     

A retrospective study of health care-associated pneumonia patients at Aichi Medical University hospital

Health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP) was defined in the American Thoracic Society/Infectious Disease Society of America guidelines on hospital-acquired pneumonia in 2005. However, little is known about the occurrence of HCAP in Japan. A retrospective review of background characteristics, pathological conditions, causative organisms, initial treatments, and risk factors for HCAP was conducted to determine the relationship of HCAP to community-acquired pneumonia and hospital-acquired pneumonia. Thirty-five patients who were admitted to our hospital for pneumonia acquired outside our hospital were included and were stratified by disease severity according to the Japanese Respiratory Society risk stratification guidelines (A-DROP [age, dehydration, respiratory failure, orientation disturbance, and shock blood pressure] criteria). All patients had an underlying disease. A total of 70 microbial strains (25 gram-positive, 37 gram-negative, 6 anaerobic, and 2 causative of atypical pneumonia) were isolated from sputum cultures, showing high isolation frequencies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus and extremely low isolation frequencies of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae. “History of hospitalization within 90 days before the onset of pneumonia” was the most common risk factor, and most of the patients had two or three risk factors. Initially, monotherapy [mainly tazobactam/piperacillin (TAZ/PIPC), sulbactam/ampicillin (SBT/ABPC), ceftriaxone (CTRX), cefepime (CPFM), carbapenems, or fluoroquinolones] or combination therapy (beta-lactam and fluoroquinolone) were administered and gave clinical effects in 63% (22/35) of cases. Bacteriological effects were seen in most strains (57%; 40/70). Since the causative organisms of HCAP were closely related to those of hospital-acquired pneumonia and not to community-acquired pneumonia, we believe that aggressive chemotherapy using broad-spectrum antimicrobials is needed in the initial treatment.     

社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎与普通肺炎的比较

目的通过对社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎与普通肺炎的临床对比研究,探讨社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎新的流行病学变化趋势及其特点。方法10例社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎与20例社区获得性普通肺炎进行配对研究,回顾性分析其临床特点、易患因素、病原学检查特点以及抗生素治疗特点。结果(1)社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎的临床症状、生化检查、胸部X线表现等无特殊性,两组病死率比较差异无显著性。(2)患有基础疾病者易发生社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎。(3)不适合抗生素使用时间的过度延长引起一个复杂的疾病过程,而适合抗生素使用的延迟未引起患者病死率的明显增加。结论(1)对因社区获得性肺炎住ICU的患者,如果具备年老,至少有一种基础疾病存在,有既往住院史,有既往抗菌素使用史等特点,应警惕社区获得性肠杆菌肺炎的可能。(2)对疑诊患者早期病原学检查有助于抗生素的合理的选择。     

亚洲地区肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体在成人社区获得性肺炎中的流行病学研究

目的由Malaya大学医学中心牵头进行的非典型病原在亚洲社区获得性肺炎（CAP）患者中的流行病学研究。结果显示，肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体分别占成人病原的11．4％和5．8％。本研究将对这2种病原所致感染的临床和实验室资料进一步总结分析。方法亚洲7个国家12个研究中心采用统一的检测方法（DNA检测及血清学方法）和判断标准，对16岁以上的CAP患者进行肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体的检测。结果在急性肺部感染者中，肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体肺炎的临床表现与其他病原所致者非常相似，并无特征性。肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体在男性和女性中检出率相仿，但肺炎支原体感染在16至44岁患者中更为多见（22．2％），而肺炎衣原体感染者重症患者相对较多。88例在病程中血清抗体显著增高的肺炎支原体感染者中，48例（54．5%）患者急性期抗体阴性，如果未检测恢复期血清抗体，上述患者则会漏诊；51例肺炎衣原体感染者中急性期血清抗体阴性则较为少见（21．6％）。肺炎支原体和肺炎衣原体既往感染和（或）病原携带率分别为5．7％和7．9%。结论肺炎支原体肺炎和肺炎衣原体肺炎发病率高，诊断困难，因此在亚洲成人CAP抗感染经验治疗时宜选用对这2种病原亦有效的药物。