Arterial vasculature of cervical skin flaps

Old age and preoperative radiotherapy both decrease the blood supply to neck skin. It is therefore necessary to know how the skin flaps which are raised in neck surgery, receive their blood supply. By using silicone rubber injections we have studied the blood supply to the cervical skin in human cadavers before and after the elevation of flaps. There is a network of small vessels between the platysma and the skin originating from the external carotid artery superiorly and the subclavian artery inferiorly. There is a distinct watershed between the areas supplied by these two vessels; furthermore there is very little anastomosis across the mid-line. The richest arterial supply lies superiorly and the worst inferiorly and medially. In the intact neck, the vascular network is filled from underlying arteries, whereas in the elevated flap the network is filled from the base of the pedicle. On this evidence we suggest that: –the platysma should be included in the flap to conserve the vascular network –the horizontal limb of an incision should lie in the watershed –the upper flap should be larger than the lower flap.     

The nasolabial musculocutaneous flap: clinical and anatomical correlations

The location of the facial artery beneath the facial mimetic muscles of the nasolabial groove allows surgical development of a true musculocutaneous flap. This report of 20 surgical flaps and six cadaveric dissections highlights the nasolabial musculocutaneous flap with its direct muscle perforating arteries which nourish the overlying skin. The absence of any flap's ischemic failure emphasizes the durability of the flap for various midface and oral reconstructive situations. Inferiorly-based flaps are preferable on the basis of discussed anatomical findings. The musculocutaneous flap is especially suited for circumferential interruption of cutaneous blood supply as in the "V-to-Y" and island pedicle flaps.     

Vascular territory expansion: a surgical technique for augmenting survival of an animal model of a musculocutaneous flap]

Ischemia-induced flap failure remains a major concern for reconstructive surgeons. A porcine rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap was designed and subsequently used to study our hypothesis of vascular territory expansion whereas the perfusion territory of a previously ligated vessel is taken over by the remaining vessel(s). Specifically, we observed that ligation of the superior epigastric (SE) vessels two weeks prior to raising the TRAM flap significantly (p less than 0.05) increased the length and area of the viable skin in the transverse skin paddles of the treatment flaps compared to the contralateral sham manipulated control flaps. This significant increase in skin viability was seen to be accompanied by a significant (p less than 0.05) increase in skin and muscle capillary blood flow in the treated flaps compared with the controls (n = 9). The mechanism of vascular territory expansion is unclear. We postulate that hypoxia resulting from the ligation of the SE vessels prior to the flap surgery may play a role in triggering the deep inferior epigastric (DIE) artery to take over some of the territory previously perfused by the SE artery.     

Parietal occipital nape of neck flap. A myocutaneous flap for selected head and neck reconstruction

Reconstruction in head and neck surgery has been greatly advanced with the use of the pectoralis major and trapezius myocutaneous flaps. Most surgical defects can be repaired with one of these flaps alone, or in conjunction with cutaneous flaps. Specific problems, however, occur that cannot be successfully reconstructed by these standard flaps. The traditional scalp flaps are cutaneous flaps. Use of these flaps is limited because of their shortened arc of rotation and accompanying forehead deformity. Three patients underwent reconstruction with a parietal occipital nape of neck myocutaneous flap. Its advantages include the following: large segments of hairless skin from the contralateral side of the neck can be used, an extensive arc of rotation and distance can be achieved with excellent vascularity in the overlying skin, and cosmetic results are superior. Angiographic studies were used to demonstrate the vascular pattern and supply to this flap. Cadaver dissections were performed to determine the pattern of distribution of the perforating vessels to the skin from underlying muscle.     

Improving outcomes of locoregional flaps: an emphasis on anatomy and basic science

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: There has been renewed interest by surgeons in locoregional flaps for facial renconstructive problems previously thought to be optimally managed by microvascular tissue transfer. Complication rates of locoregional flaps are similar to those of free flaps. Successful reconstruction using local flaps is largely based on an understanding of regional vascular anatomy. RECENT FINDINGS: Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle flap studies have elucidated patterns of arterial and venous anatomy to allow for improved flap design. Perioral vascular studies in cadavers demonstrate consistent and reliable patterns of blood supply. The terminal vascular anatomy of the submental island flap has been recently studied. The reverse-flow submental artery flap has been used to reconstruct periorbital soft tissue defects. Preliminary studies show that a full-thickness forehead flap can be utilized to simultaneously reconstruct both the external and internal surfaces of the nose. Basic fibroblast growth factor has been found to have a protective effect on random skin flap viability. SUMMARY: Locoregional flaps remain a useful tool for head and neck reconstruction, and often provide unique characteristics not available with free flap reconstruction. A sound understanding of vascular anatomy and recent basic science discoveries will significantly improve success of locoregional reconstruction.     

Primary thinning and de-epithelialization of microsurgical transplants from the lateral thigh]

To expand the indicational spectrum of the myocutaneous vastus lateralis flap, which is often too voluminous for intraoral application, we performed extreme, primary thinning of the fat and muscle component of this microsurgical transplant in 14 patients. After subfascial localization of the 0.5- to 1.0-mm-thick perforating vessel, it is exposed through the fascia and muscles up to its exit from the descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery. After isolating the perforating vessel, it is no longer necessary to include parts of the vastus lateralis muscle in the flap. The fatty tissue of the remaining epifascial fat component is completely removed except for a ca. 1- to 2-cm-wide cuff of fatty tissue and fascia around the perforating vessel. When performing this primary radical removal of the subcutaneous fatty tissue, care should be taken not to injure the deep subdermal vascular plexus. In addition to the thinning procedure, de-epithelialization of the skin was performed using scalpel blade dissection (five patients) or carbon dioxide laser (6 W, five patients). This thinning technique was used for covering ten intraoral and four extraoral defects and enabled the raising of skin flaps with a thickness of 3-5 mm even in obese patients. The vessel pedicle length of thinned flaps was between 12 and 16 cm; flap size varied between 4 x 5 and 9 x 15 cm, and the donor sites were directly closed. In one case, there was a partial necrosis (20%), but the remaining flaps healed without complications. On the intraoral flaps, a thin, smooth and pliable surface developed after re-epithelialization within 3-6 weeks. The described method expands the application possibilities of the myocutaneous vastus lateralis flap for a large number of intraoral and flat defects with minimal donor-site morbidity.     

逆行蒂颏下瓣修补头面部缺损

目的探讨用逆行蒂颏下岛状组织瓣修补头面部缺损。方法回顾分析南京军区福州总医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科2004年1月至2006年12月间逆行蒂颏下组织瓣修补因肿瘤切除导致面部、上颌或咽部缺损10例，男6例，女4例；年龄24～76岁，中位年龄55岁。其中上睑皮肤黑色素瘤手术缺损1例，硬腭肌上皮瘤2例，上颌造釉细胞瘤1例，扁桃体癌4例，舌根癌2例。根据手术缺损大小切取颏下组织瓣，以面动静脉远心端为蒂，经面部皮下或经颌下转移至缺损区修补缺损。4例扁桃体癌和2例舌根癌同期行同侧经典性颈清扫术。结果术后皮瓣均有不同程度肿胀苍白或淤血，5d后皮瓣肿胀逐渐消退，色泽逐渐恢复正常。1例淤血严重，经针刺放血、药物治疗，一期愈合。另1例皮瓣与硬腭在中缝处裂开2cm，再次清创缝合后愈合，1例同侧口角轻度偏斜，药物治疗3个月后恢复。所有病例术后皮瓣均成活。结论逆行蒂颏下组织瓣由于蒂在上方，可以向上转移较远距离而修补面中部、眼裂周围缺损，并且可同时行颈淋巴清扫手术，也是修补有颈淋巴转移的口咽部恶性肿瘤手术缺损的一种良好选择。     

Gezüchtetes Knorpelgewebe in einem präfabrizierten, mikrovaskulären Lappen

INTRODUCTION: In reconstructive surgery, the integration of tissue-engineered cartilage in a prefabricated free flap may make it possible to generate flaps combining a variety of tissue components to meet the special requirements of a particular defect. The aim of the present study was to establish the technique of prefabricating a microvascular free flap by implanting a vessel loop under a skin flap in a rabbit model. The second aim was to gather experience with prelaminating the flap with autologous tissue-engineered cartilage in terms of matrix development, inflammatory reaction and host-tissue interaction. METHODS: The microvascular flap was created by implanting a vessel loop under a random pattern abdominal skin flap. The tissue-engineered cartilage constructs were made by isolating chondrocytes from auricular biopsies. Following a period of amplification, the cells were seeded onto a non-woven scaffold made of a hyaluronic acid derivative and cultivated for 2-3 weeks. One cell-biomaterial construct was placed beneath the prefabricated flap, and the others were placed subcutaneously under the abdominal skin and intermuscularly at the lower extremity. In addition, a biomaterial sample without cells was placed subcutaneously as a control. All implanted specimens were left in position for 6 or 12 weeks. After explantation, the specimens were examined by histological and immunohistological methods. The prefabricated flap was analyzed by angiography. RESULTS: The prefabricated flaps showed a well-developed network of blood vessels formed by neovascularization between the implanted vessel loop and the original random-pattern blood supply. The tissue-engineered constructs remained stable in size and showed signs of tissue similar to hyaline cartilage, as evidenced by the expression of cartilage-specific collagen type II and proteoglycans. No hints of inflammatory reactions were observed. CONCLUSION: These results show the potential of prefabricated flaps as custom-made flaps for reconstructive surgery in difficult circumstances, more or less independent of anatomical prerequisites. Cartilage tissue engineering provides a 3-dimensional structure with minimal donor-site morbidity.     

Arterial Supply of the Nasal Tip in Asians

Objectives: The blood supply to the nasal tip and columella was examined to determine whether it could be damaged as a result of transcolumellar incision during an external rhinoplasty approach in Asians. Methods: The blood vessels that supply the nasal tip were examined by dissecting 51 cadavers, and their corresponding 102 nasal sections were injected with red latex before dissection. The size and distribution of the vessels were measured with the unaided eye and the primary supply vessels were determined. The subdermal layer in which the vessels lie and the course of the vessels were also investigated. Results: The main blood supply source of the nasal tip proved to be the lateral nasal artery in 78% (80/102) of the cases examined, while the remaining cases (22%) received their blood supply via the dorsal nasal artery. Columellar branches were narrow in diameter and varied in size and appearance, and were therefore appeared insufficient as a main blood supply. These arteries passed through the musculoaponeurotic layer, but they were also in close proximity to the main surgical plane in the dome of the lower lateral cartilage. Conclusions: The authors speculate that the nasal tip blood supply in Asians is primarily derived from the lateral nasal or dorsal nasal arteries, with a variable contribution from the columella arteries. Therefore, it is important to correctly determine the surgical plane below the musculoaponeurotic layer in order to prevent skin flap necrosis or nasal tip deformity that may occur from damage to the main vessel during an external rhinoplasty approach.     

颏下动脉带蒂皮瓣应用解剖研究

目的 解剖颏下动脉带蒂皮瓣,观察颏下动脉及其伴行静脉的走行和可能存在的变异及与周围重要结构的毗邻关系,并了解其支配区域组织的大小以及皮瓣所能覆盖的范围。方法 取15例(30侧)新鲜汉族成人头颅湿标本,动脉系统灌注混有红色染料的乳胶,静脉系统灌注混有蓝色染料的乳胶,进行大体和显微解剖,用游标卡尺测量及统计分析,主要参数包括：颏下动脉及其伴行静脉起始部直径、颏下动脉长度及主要分支、与主要体表标志的关系等,观察典型和变异标本并照相留存。经动脉灌注黑色墨水,观察颏下皮肤染色的范围,测量并统计颏下皮瓣的最大长度和宽度,观察皮瓣所能覆盖的范围。结果 颏下动脉恒定地起源于面动脉,平均长度(69.1±7.47)mm。其自面动脉发出处动脉直径为(1.6±0.47)mm,沿途分支为(6.5±1.09)支,其中支配二腹肌前腹分支较多并相对粗大,平均直径(1.1±0.25)mm。距离下颌骨下缘距离(5.4±1.63)mm。所有标本均只有一支颏下静脉伴行颏下动脉,均回流至面静脉。其静脉起始部位直径为(2.3±0.58)mm,距离下颌骨下缘距离为(15.4±3.29)mm。颏下皮瓣的大小因人而异,最大为84.6mm×53.5mm。结论 颏下动脉是颏下皮瓣的主要供血动脉,是面动脉恒定的分支。该皮瓣血液供应丰富,易取材,可以作为头颈部修复与重建材料的良好选择。     

胸背动脉穿支皮瓣的解剖学研究及其在头颈修复中的意义

目的探讨胸背动脉穿支皮瓣的解剖学基础及其在头颈修复中的临床意义。方法解剖新鲜成人尸体5具,观察、测量胸背动脉穿支皮瓣供血穿支的数目、类型、管径、蒂长、走行、出筋膜后轴向及源血管外径,并对其定位。结果胸背动脉穿支44支,其中肌皮穿支35支、肌间隔/直接皮穿支9支。胸背动脉内侧支的肌皮穿支数占38.6%。胸背动脉外侧支的皮穿支数占54.5%,大部分位于背阔肌前缘2?cm之内。最粗穿支血管平均蒂长（12.41±2.84）cm。肩胛下动静脉外径（3.59±0.62）、（3.75±0.41）mm,胸背动静脉外径（2.71±0.43）、（2.98±0.18）mm。结论胸背动脉的穿支血管解剖位置较为恒定,穿支皮瓣制作方便,其管径及蒂长均适宜头颈肿瘤术后缺损的修复。     

颏下逆行带蒂岛状皮瓣的应用解剖研究

目的 为颏下逆行带蒂岛状皮瓣修复颜面部皮肤软组织缺损的可行性及手术操作提供解剖学依据.方法 解剖20例40侧福尔马林固定、颈总动脉灌注红色乳胶的成人头颈标本及4例灌注汞溴红、2例灌注亚甲蓝的新鲜成人头颈标本,测量相关动脉的外径及相关标志点之间的距离(以-x±s表示);观察两侧面动脉之间、面动脉与颞浅动脉及眼动脉终术之间的吻合情况,观察面动、静脉的行程要点及其与面神经各分支之间的位置关系,观察面静脉与相关静脉之间的吻合情况.结果 颏下动脉、上唇动脉、下唇动脉起点处的外径(-x±s,以下同)分别为(1.42±0.30)mm、(1.34±0.35)mm、(1.34±0.27)mm.下唇动脉起点至颏下动脉起点直线距离为(35.19±9.18)mm,实际距离为(50.13±13.79)mm;上唇动脉起点至颏下动脉起点直线距离为(64.99±5.24)mm,实际距离为(92.09±8.73)mm.双侧面动脉之间、面动脉与颞浅动脉及眼动脉终末之间有丰富的吻合.在下颌缘水平,面动、静脉相贴伴行,面神经下颌缘支跨过其浅面;在下颌缘水平以上,面静脉行于面动脉后外约1 cm处,面神经颊支经面静脉表面于面动、静脉之间人表情肌.面静脉通过内眦静脉与眼静脉、面深静脉与上颌静脉之间有良好的交通.结论 以颏下逆行带蒂岛状皮瓣修复颜面部皮肤软组织缺损在解剖上具有可行性,建议皮瓣的旋转点选择在口角或口角以下平面.     

The rhombotrapezius myocutaneous and osteomyocutaneous flaps

As more radical surgery is being performed for head and neck cancer, an increasing variety of flaps for reconstruction have been developed. The more common myocutaneous flaps for large defects are the pectoralis major, trapezius, and latissimus dorsi flaps. The lower trapezius flap, which is used for reconstruction of large lateral facial defects, is a relatively thin flap. The rhombotrapezius flap described in this article provides bulk for augmentation of facial defects. The flap, which includes the trapezius and rhomboid muscles, also offers a longer pedicle with a greater arc of rotation. This flap may include the medial border of the scapula when bone is necessary. The addition of the rhomboid muscles incorporates the dorsal scapular artery, which gives an additional blood supply to the flap. We believe that the rhombotrapezius, myocutaneous, and osteomyocutaneous flaps have a significant advantage over previously described flaps in the treatment of defects that need greater bulk and length for adequate reconstruction.     

Advantages of perforator flaps in reconstruction of complex defects of the head and neck

Microsurgical transfer of vascularized tissue during the past three decades has allowed highly complicated postoncologic defects in the head and neck region to be reconstructed. Recently, perforator flaps have been used to reduce postoperative pain, shorten hospital stay, and lessen donor-site complications. These flaps are offsprings of previously known musculocutaneous and fasciocutaneous flaps and are harvested with preservation of the underlying muscular and fascial structures. The vascularized skin and soft-tissue envelope is supplied by perforating branches from the parent vessel. Less is known about the performance of these flaps in the head and neck region. During a 4-year period, 22 patients at our institution underwent reconstruction of the head and neck region with deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) or thoracodorsal artery perforator (TDAP) flaps. All but one of the flaps survived. Advantages noted include: (1) longer vascular pedicles, (2) less postoperative pain, (3) less donor-site deformity, (4) improved aesthetic outcome, (5)potential for a neurosensory flap, (6) potential for an osteocutaneous flap, and (7) ease of postoperative radiologic follow-up. The DIEP flap can be harvested concurrent with oncologic resection, with the patient in the supine position. The TDAP flap is dissected with the patient in the decubitus position, creating an additional step to change operative position, and separates extirpative and reconstructive stages.     

Sternocleidomastoid myocutaneous flap

The sternocleidomastoid myocutancous flap has several applications for reconstruction of defects about the head and neck. It is used for augmentation of facial defects, carotid artery protection, and repair of oral cavity defects. Additional reconstructive efforts suggest the sternocleidomastoid myocutancous flap can be used for facial reanimation and as an osteomyocutaneous flap incorporating the clavicle for mandibular reconstruction. Reports of unreliable viability and resection of the sternocleidomastoid muscle during neck dissection decreases the applicability of the flap. Twenty-seven sternocleidomastoid flaps were used in 26 patients for head and neck reconstruction. In contrast to the reported 40% to 50% incidence of superficial slough or total flap necrosis, three (11%) flaps developed superficial (cutaneous) slough while two patients developed inclusion cysts. The technique includes elevation of the sternocleidomastoid muscle with the overlying platysma and skin originally described by Owens. The procedure is modified by removing the epithelium on the tunneled portion of the flap. This allows the flap to be used as a one-stage method of reconstruction without sacrificing the additional blood supply from the platysma and overlying dermis.     

头颈部岛状肌皮瓣和皮瓣的改良设计及临床应用

目的　探讨制作单一血管为蒂的头颈部局部带蒂肌皮瓣或皮瓣的安全性。方法　解剖学观察20例胸肩峰动脉分支,观察最远入肌点走行特征。通过术前超声观察和术中透视法观察定位最远入肌点,在最远入肌点上方1～2 cm断离肌肉,形成单纯动静脉血管为蒂的胸大肌岛状肌肌皮瓣。利用同样的技术方法,设计岛状的胸锁乳突肌、下位斜方肌的岛状肌皮瓣。结果　解剖学观察胸肩峰动脉分支分为单支型12.5%（5/40）,双支型67.5%（27/40）,多支型20%（8/40）。术前超声定位胸大肌皮瓣的最远入肌点成功率为29.1%（14/48）,DSA成功显影乳内动脉穿支66.7%（12/18）,共完成胸大肌岛状肌皮瓣48例,乳内动脉岛状皮瓣12例,颏瓣18例,下位斜方肌岛状肌皮瓣4例,胸锁乳突肌岛状肌皮瓣4例,颈横血管岛状皮瓣3例,胸肩峰动脉穿支的岛状皮瓣3例。失败2例,1例为胸大肌肌皮瓣的岛状设计中电刀误伤胸肩峰动脉胸肌支;1例为颈横血管浅支,术中修复扁桃体癌咽侧壁缺损。3例胸大肌部分坏死,清理完坏死组织,换药后痊愈。结论　在头颈部设计单一血管为蒂的岛状肌皮瓣（皮瓣）的改良设计安全可行,在受区皮瓣容易塑形固定,供区不仅外形美观且功能保全。     

外鼻组织缺损的修复

目的：探讨外鼻组织缺损美学修复的方法。方法：以Yotsuyanagi等的鼻部美学分区原则为基础，结合笔者的临床实践，将鼻部分为鼻尖、鼻翼、鼻背上部、鼻背下部、鼻背旁区5个美学单位，采用鼻唇沟随意皮瓣、邻近菱形瓣、额部岛状瓣、鼻唇沟逆行岛状瓣、前臂带蒂皮瓣等方法修复外鼻组织缺损。结果：术后随访3个月～5年，疗效及外形满意，无一例复发。结论：采用邻近皮瓣及前臂带蒂皮瓣可以实现外鼻组织缺损的美学修复。     

Clinical assessment of flap perfusion by fiberoptic fluorometry

Perfusion fluorometry, a method which quantifies tissue fluorescence after intravenous fluorescein injection, has been highly predictive of skin flap survival in animals. It is advantageous because it is objective, simple, noninvasive, repeatable, and can be used to monitor flap perfusion constantly by following both uptake and elimination of dye. We applied this method clinically to a variety of flaps used in head and neck surgery. All flaps with good fluorometric values survived totally. Based on experience with 37 flaps, fluorometric indices have been established that accurately predict necrosis. Serial dye injections have been used to document transient flap ischemia in the early postoperative period. Representative cases illustrating the advantages of fluorometry in flap assessment are presented.     

Supraclavicular flap in head and neck reconstruction: experience in 50 consecutive patients

The supraclavicular flap (SCF) is a fasciocutaneous flap used to cover head, oral, and neck region defects after tumor resection. Its main vascular supply is the supraclavicular artery and accompanying veins and it can be harvested as a vascularised pedicled flap. The SCF serves as an excellent outer skin cover as well as a good inner mucosal lining after oral cavity and head-neck tumor resections. The flap has a wide arc of rotation and matches the skin colour and texture of the face and neck. Between March 2006 and March 2011, the pedicled supraclavicular flap was used for reconstruction in 50 consecutive patients after head and neck tumor resections and certain benign conditions in a tertiary university hospital setting. The flaps were tunnelized under the neck skin to cover the external cervicofacial defects or passed medial to the mandible to give an inner epithelial lining after the oral cavity and oropharyngeal tumor excision. Forty-four of the 50 patients had 100% flap survival with excellent wound healing. All the flaps were harvested in less than 1 h. There were four cases of distal tip desquamation and two patients had complete flap necrosis. Distal flap desquamation was observed in SCFs used for resurfacing the external skin defects after oral cavity tumor ablation and needed only conservative treatment measures. Total flap failure was encountered in two patients who had failed in previous chemoradiotherapy for squamous cell cancer of the floor of mouth and tonsil, respectively, and the SCF was used in mucosal defect closure after tumor ablation. The benefits of a pedicled fasciocutaneous supraclavicular flap are clear; it is thin, reliable, easy, and quick to harvest. In head, face and neck reconstructions, it is a good alternative to free fasciocutaneous flaps, regional pedicled myocutaneous flaps, and the deltopectoral flap.     

Der transversale Rectus-abdominis-Muskel- (TRAM-)Lappen

BACKGROUND: The microvascular anastomosed transverse rectus abdominis muscle (TRAM) island flap has been successfully used in plastic surgery for more than 10 years. In reconstructive head and neck surgery, however, it is not yet established. METHOD: We analysed the preparation and anatomical variation in TRAM flaps in an examination of eight cadavers. In a clinical case with complete reconstruction of the nose after nasal ablation and complete loss of a radial lower forearm flap that had been transplanted previously due to a recurrent tumor, the possibility of forming and modeling a TRAM flap is demonstrated. RESULTS: The flap vessels of the TRAM are comparable to the radial forearm flap, and the donor site may be primarily closed. The TRAM proved to be a suitable alternative to close lesions of the head and neck area in selected cases. The myocutaneous TRAM is bulkier than the fascio-cutaneous radial forearm flap. The subcutaneous abdominal fat of the TRAM can be reduced in relation to the vascular distribution of the perforator vessels. If the subcutaneous fat of the flap is reduced, the flap can be shaped and formed well. In the described case, it was used to close the lesion after ablation of the nose and middle face. CONCLUSION: The risk of an iatrogenic lesion of the peritoneal fascia or postsurgical herniation of the abdominal wall is low if several surgical prerequisites are taken into consideration. The myocutaneous TRAM will not replace the fascio-cutaneous radial forearm flap in microvascular head and neck surgery, but the large diameter of the donor vessels and the highly vascularized flap tissue makes it an alternative as a second line procedure in cases of unfavorable wound conditions.