Decentralisation and health services delivery in Tanzania: Analysis of decision space in planning,allocation, and use of financial resources

While decentralisation of health systems has been on the policy agenda in low‐income and middle‐income countries since the 1970s, many studies have focused on understanding who has more decision‐making powers but less attention is paid to understand what those powers encompass. Using the decision space approach, this study aimed to understand the amount of decision‐making space transferred from the central government to institutions at the periphery in the decentralised health system in Tanzania. The findings of this study indicated that the decentralisation process in Tanzania has provided authorities with a range of decision‐making space. In the areas of priority setting and planning, district health authorities had moderate decision space. However, in the financial resource allocation and expenditure of funds from the central government, the districts had narrow decision‐making space. The districts, nevertheless, had wider decision‐making space in mobilising and using locally generated financial resources. However, the ability of the districts to allocate and use locally generated resources was constrained by bureaucratic procedures of the central government. The study concludes that decentralisation by devolution which is being promoted in the policy documents in Tanzania is yet to be realised at the district and local levels. The study recommends that the central government should provide more space to the decentralised district health systems to incorporate locally defined priorities in the district health plans.     

Motivation of human resources for health: a case study at rural district level in Tanzania

An increasing number of studies explore the association between financial and non‐financial incentives and the retention of health workers in developing countries. This study aims to contribute to empirical evidence on human resource for health motivation factors to assist policy makers in promoting effective and realistic interventions. A cross‐sectional survey was conducted in four rural Tanzanian districts to explore staff stability and health workers' motivation. Data were collected using qualitative and quantitative techniques, covering all levels and types of health facilities. Stability of staff was found to be quite high. Public institutions remained very attractive with better job security, salary and retirement benefits. Satisfaction over working conditions was very low owing to inadequate working equipment, work overload, lack of services, difficult environment, favouritism and ‘empty promotions’. Positive incentives mentioned were support for career development and supportive supervision. Attracting new staff in rural areas appeared to be more difficult than retaining staff in place. The study concluded that strategies to better motivate health personnel should focus on adequate remuneration, positive working and living environment and supportive management. However, by multiplying health facilities, the latest Tanzanian human resource for health plan could jeopardize current positive results. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The management of health services in Tanzania: a plea for health sector reform

There are essentially four main approaches used in attempts to strengthen the management of health services in developing countries. These are: information system development; management training; use of planning and evaluation methodologies; and, health sector reform. As part of a collaborative research project based in Kisarawe District, Tanzania, we tested the hypothesis that a combination of the first three of these approaches would be sufficient to ensure that decisions and actions were taken to bring about major improvements in the management of health services. It was assumed that the decentralization, which took place as part of the 1982 reorganization of local government responsibilities, had provided managers with sufficient decision-making autonomy to allow them to bring about improvement in health service performance, provided that the other conditions were met. In fact, it was found that despite being presented with clear evidence of serious inefficiencies and inequities in the allocation of health resources, managers were often highly reluctant to decide upon actions which would alleviate the problems in situations where there were potential losers as well as winners, even if the benefits greatly outweighed the costs. This article argues that interventions based solely on training, information systems, or planning and evaluation protocols will make only marginal improvements to health service management, and that changes to the system as a whole are needed in order to provide managers and health professionals with incentives to rectify performance failings. Some ideas for health sector reform, to give managers power and incentives for improving efficiency and quality of care, are put forward. Since it is likely that the systemic problems of the health sector in Tanzania are shared by many other developing countries, the lessons drawn from this study probably have more general applicability.     

Participation in health planning in a decentralised health system: Experiences from facility governing committees in the Kongwa district of Tanzania

Tanzania introduced the decentralisation of its health systems in the 1990s in order to provide opportunities for community participation in health planning. Health facility governing committees (HFGCs) were then established to provide room for communities to participate in the management of health service delivery. The objective of this study was to explore the challenges and benefits for the participation of HFGCs in health planning in a decentralised health system. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). A total of 13 key informants were interviewed from the council and lower-level health facilities. Five FGDs were conducted from five health facilities in one district. Data generated were analysed for themes and patterns. The results of the study suggest that HFGCs are instrumental organs in health planning at the community level and there are several benefits resulting from their participation including an opportunity to address community needs and mobilisation of resources. However, there are some challenges associated with the participation of HFGCs in health planning including a low level of education among committee members and late approval of funds for running health facilities. In conclusion, HFGCs potentially play a significant role in health planning. However, their participation is ineffective due to their limited capacities and disabling environment.     

中国卫生系统人力资源开发与管理现状

回顾了人力资源开发与管理发展的历史，探讨了人力资源开发与管理与传统人事管理的异同以及其研究内容，并分析研究了中国卫生系统人力资源开发与管理的现状、不足及其发展趋势。     

Scaling up priority health interventions in Tanzania: the human resources challenge

The international community has set ambitious goals (Millennium Development Goals) to improve health in developing countries by 2015. Effective and often cheap interventions exist to achieve these goals. In the mainland of Tanzania, one of the poorest countries of the world, we explored the human resources challenges of expanding the coverage of such priority interventions. We projected human resources for health (HRH) availability using a standard approach and estimated human resource requirements using a novel method (QTP) that produces estimates by task-specific skill categories and explicitly considers productivity. In this paper, we present the findings of the case study in Tanzania and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the QTP model. On the whole, the HRH challenge of expanding priority interventions in mainland Tanzania is daunting. HRH requirements exceed by far the estimates of HRH availability for 2015. The scaling up of the HIV/AIDS related intervention cluster, in particular the treatment and care of people living with HIV/AIDS, was the primary driver of increases in HRH requirements between the study's base year, 2002, and 2015, and thus of the overall imbalance. Scenario analysis points to three key areas for change in HRH policy and practice to reduce future imbalances: the increment-attrition balance, staff and service productivity, and the match between task-specific skill and occupational categories. However, even in an optimistic scenario, human resource availability will limit the extent to which priority interventions can be expanded in the mainland of Tanzania, and the government will not be able to avoid adjusting the globally set targets for service coverage and health outcomes to local realities and priorities.     

The crisis in human resources for health care and the potential of a 'retired' workforce: case study of the independent midwifery sector in Tanzania

The human resource crisis in health care is an important obstacle to attainment of the health-related targets for the Millennium Development Goals. One suggested strategy to alleviate the strain upon government services is to encourage new forms of non-government provision. Detail on implementation and consequences is often lacking, however. This article examines one new element of non-government provision in Tanzania: small-scale independent midwifery practices. A multiple case study analysis over nine districts explored their characteristics, and the drivers and inhibitors acting upon their development since permitted by legislative change. Private midwifery practices were found concentrated in a 'new' workforce of 'later life entrepreneurs': retired, or approaching retirement, government-employed nursing officers. Provision was entirely facility-based due to regulatory requirements, with approximately 60 'maternity homes' located mainly in rural or peri-urban areas. Motivational drivers included fear of poverty, desire to maintain professional status, and an ethos of community service. However, inhibitors to success were multiple. Start-up loans were scarce, business training lacking and registration processes bureaucratic. Cost of set-up and maintenance were prohibitively high, registration required levels of construction and equipping similar to government sector dispensaries. Communities were reluctant to pay for services that they expected from government. Thus, despite offering a quality of basic maternity care comparable to that in government facilities, often in poorly-served areas, most private maternity homes were under-utilized and struggling for sustainability. Because of their location and emphasis on personalized care, small-scale independent practices run by retired midwives could potentially increase rates of skilled attendance at delivery at peripheral level. The model also extends the working life of members of a professional group at a time of shortage. However, the potential remains unrealized. Successful multiplication of this model in resource-poor communities requires more than just deregulation of private ownership. Prohibitive start-up expenses need to be reduced by less emphasis on facility-based provision. On-going financing arrangements such as micro-credit, contracting, vouchers and franchising models require consideration.     

福建省卫生人力资源需求预测研究

福建省在深化医药卫生体制改革工作中开展全省卫生人力资源基本信息专项调查。该文在分析全省卫生人力资源现状的基础上,以2012、2015、2020年3个年度为预测目标年度,进行福建省卫生人力资源的需求预测。     

经济欠发达地区乡村卫生人力资源现状分析

受城乡二元经济的影响,经济欠发达地区乡村卫生人力资源严重缺乏,人员数量每千人仅为0．88人,人力结构大龄化（45岁以上卫生人员占46．71％）、学历结构低（中专学历占81．04％）、专业结构不合理（缺乏预防、医技和护理人才）、职称结构不协调（初级职称占38．13％）,卫生体制不健全和培训机制不完善是导致经济欠发达地区乡村卫生人力资源严重缺乏的直接原因。     

How to make rural jobs more attractive to health workers. Findings from a discrete choice experiment in Tanzania

The geographical imbalance of the health workforce in Tanzania represents a serious problem when it comes to delivering crucial health services to a large share of the population. This study provides new quantitative information about how to make jobs in rural areas more attractive to newly educated clinical officers (COs). A unique data set stemming from a discrete choice experiment with CO finalists in Tanzania is applied. The results show that offering continuing education after a certain period of service is one of the most powerful recruitment instruments the authorities have available. Increased salaries and hardship allowances will also substantially increase recruitment in rural areas. Offers of decent housing and good infrastructure, including the provision of equipment, will increase recruitment to rural remote areas but not as much as higher wages and offers of education. Women are less responsive to pecuniary incentives and are more concerned with factors that directly allow them to do a good job, while those with parents living in a remote rural area are generally less responsive to the proposed policies. When the willingness to help other people is a strong motivating force, policies that improve the conditions for helping people appear particularly effective. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

我国卫生人力资源需求分析与预测

在对我国人口结构变化以及卫生服务需求进行分析的基础上,利用卫生服务需求法,对未来10年我国卫生人力资源需求情况进行了分析和测算,提出2020年我国卫生人力资源需求量为1288万人,每千人口医生、护士、药师、技师、卫生管理人员以及专业公共卫生机构人员数分别达到2．34、3．51、0．60、0．33、0．36以及0．82。除了数量上的分析,还需对各类卫生人力资源的素质水平提出要求,通过管理制度和机制的不断创新完善,优化我国卫生人力资源配置。     

Effects of decentralisation and health system reform on health workforce and quality‐of‐care in Indonesia, 1993–2007

The impact of decentralisation, socioeconomic changes and healthcare reforms in Indonesia on type and distribution of healthcare providers and quality‐of‐care has been unclear. We examined workforce trends for healthcare facilities from 1993 to 2007 using the Indonesian Family Life Surveys. Each included a sample of public and private healthcare facilities, used standardised interviews for numbers and composition of staffing, and quality‐of‐care vignettes. There was an increase in multiprovider facilities and shift in profile of solo providers—increasing proportions of midwives and drop in doctors in rural areas (including facilities with doctors) and nurses in urban areas. Quality‐of‐care scores were low, particularly for nurses as solo providers. Despite increased numbers of healthcare workers and growth of the private sector, outer Java‐Bali and rural areas continued to be disadvantaged in workforce capacity and quality‐of‐care. The results have implications for accreditation and in‐service training requirements, the legal status of nurses and private sector regulation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于HRDI的天津市社区卫生人力资源分析

利用HRDI对2010年天津市社区卫生人力资源数据进行统计分析,了解目前天津市社区卫生人力资源分布的均衡性,为进一步科学合理分配社区卫生人力资源提供参考依据。     

中国公共卫生人力资源建设现状及建议

目的探讨我国公共卫生人力资源建设工作。方法分析我国公共卫生人力资源建设的现状及存在的问题,对公共卫生人力资源建设工作提出合理化建议。结果我国公共卫生人力资源建设工作取得了长足进步,但仍存在着一些问题,需进一步改进。结论必须加强公共卫生人力资源建设,提升我国公共卫生工作整体实力。     

Health sector reform and STD/AIDS control in resource poor settings--the case of Tanzania

Integration in health sector reform tends to mean horizontal interaction between vertical programmes. This can result in a larger more complex system than a set of individual vertical programmes. This article looks at the HIV/AIDS programme in Tanzania and the possible impact of system-wide health sector reform involving 'decentralization' and horizontal integration. It implies that the build-up to reform is likely to be costly, at least initially (although eventually the system may become more cost-effective). Integration can thus save resources, but it will also demand additional inputs, and may lead to reduced service output if operations depend on horizontal functions that fail to deliver. The objective of reform must be to create a reasonably sized, well-balanced, system which aims to maximize the output of quality services, both preventive and curative, and to facilitate community efforts to improve health. It is doubtful whether present reform efforts in Tanzania will contribute to more effective services, if not based on a more thorough analysis adapted to the local situation and given considerably more resources, both human and financial. There is also a risk that key preventive programmes, such as those aimed at the control of STD/AIDS, will be further weakened because of both integration with subsequent dependence on poorly functioning horizontal units and reduction in allocated resources.     

社区卫生服务机构人力资源管理存在的问题与对策

人力资源是社区卫生服务机构核心竞争力的根本，也是保证社区居民享有基本医疗和公共卫生服务的基础。本文着重论述社区卫生服务机构人力资源管理的重要性、当前存在的问题及其原因，并提出一系列可供参考的解决途径，其中，绩效考核是社区卫生服务机构人为资源管理的重要手段。     

我国卫生人力资源现状研究

从我国卫生入力资源的数量、质量、结构、分布入手,通过对卫生人力资源的现状分析和研究,找出了我国卫生人力资源目前存在的问题,针对这些问题提出了要提高卫生人员素质、优化卫生人力资源结构和调整卫生人力资源分布等政策建议。     

我国农村卫生人力资源状况与分析

我国农村卫生人力资源存在的问题主要是总量不足、总体水平不高、结构不合理、流动机制不完善、卫生人才供需矛盾加剧等。建议政府加大投入,通过政策引导,鼓励优秀人才向农村流动;贯彻落实继续教育政策,改善人员素质,提高农村医疗服务水平。     

乡镇卫生院人力问题和策略研究

在WHO倡导下，世界各国越来越重视卫生人力的研究，为卫生决策提供帮助。卫生院作为三级预防网络的枢纽，在医疗、预防、初保方面起着其他层次医疗单位无法替代的作用。近半个世纪以来，三级预防网络在农村已具有一定的基础，初级卫生保健工作取得较大进展，农村卫生队伍已具规模。由于社会经济发展的不平衡性，卫生体制改革滞后于经济体制改革，乡镇卫生院普遍存在低索质卫技人员偏多、中高级卫技人员短缺、卫技人员结构失衡、管理水平低下和工作效率不高等人力问题。本文拟对以上问题进行分析，研究相应对策，以促进卫生事业健康发展。     

湖北省县级疾病预防控制中心卫生人力资源配置公平性分析

目的：分析2020年湖北省县级疾病预防与控制中心卫生人力资源配置的公平性并进行可视化呈现,为优化基层疾病预防控制机构人才队伍建设提供参考。方法：运用洛伦茨曲线(Lorenz curve)和基尼系数(Gini coefficient)衡量县级疾病预防控制中心卫生人力资源配置公平性,运用莫兰指数(Moran''s I)分析空间集聚效应,绘制LISA图对聚集效应进行可视化呈现。结果：卫生人力资源按常住人口和地理面积配置的Gini系数分别为0.53、0.85。按常住人口和地理面积配置的全局Moran''s I分别为0.22、0.46,说明存在空间聚集性,通过计算局部Moran''s I所绘制LISA图显示低—低型区域主要集中在人口密度高的鄂东、鄂中地区以及地理面积广的鄂西地区。结论：湖北省县级疾病预防控制中心卫生人力资源公平性有待提高,空间分布欠合理,政府在制定基层卫生人力资源政策时,需要同时考虑人口和空间因素规划卫生技术人员分布。