The family dynamics of childbearing and childrearing families in Finland

Within the context of an international comparative family dynamics project, this study had two chief goals to describe the family dynamics of childbearing and childrearing families in Finland, and to study changes in family dynamics after childbirth The sample consisted of families expecting ( n = 118) and rearing ( n = 94) their first or second child in Finland Two instruments were used in data collection, i e the Family Dynamics Questionnaire and the Family Dynamics Measure, both these tools have been developed in the USA According to the results, childbearing and childrearing families were thought to function quite well Pregnant mothers described their family dynamics in more positive terms than fathers, reporting greater flexibility and clearer communication Similarly, mothers reported more individuation and mutuality than their partners First-time expectant families reported more mutuality than families expecting their second child Childrearing mothers reported more individuation, but also more role conflict than did fathers Communication in families rearing their first child was clearer than in families rearing their second child The birth of a child affected family dynamics by bringing about various changes such as role conflict, isolation and distorted communication     

Relationships between infant temperament, demographic variables, and family dynamics of childrearing families

Relationships between infant temperament, demographic variables, and family dynamics of child-rearing families were investigated in this study. The revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (RITQ), the Family Dynamics Questionnaire (FDQ) and the Family Dynamics Measure (FDM) were sent to 118 families who had participated in the first stage of the study as child-bearing families. About 8 months after childbirth 96 mothers and 95 fathers completed the questionnaires. The characteristics of infant temperament and demographic variables related to the variance of dimensions of family dynamics. Characteristics of the temperamentally easy baby related to more positive family dynamics perceived by child-rearing parents. Fathers rearing their first child reported that their families functioned better than fathers with their second infant. In child health clinics families rearing their second child should also be supported, especially families with arhythmic and negative mood infants.     

Relationships between demographic variables and family dynamics of childbearing families

Hakulinen T, Paunonen M, Laippala P. International Journal of Nursing Practice 1997; 3: 247–254
Relationships between demographic variables and family dynamics of childbearing families
In this study relationships between demographic variables and family dynamics of childbearing families in Finland were studied. The sample was 160 urban families expecting their first or second child in the third trimester of pregnancy. One-hundred and eighteen families participated in the study. The Family Dynamics Questionnaire (FDQ) and the Family Dynamics Measure (FDM) were used in this study. Most expectant parents reported their family was well-functioning. Mothers of higher socioeconomic status found more flexibility in their families than mothers of lower socioeconomic status. Fathers in families expecting their first baby reported more mutuality, role reciprocity and more stability than second-time fathers. The findings contribute cues for public health nurses and midwives regarding parity, socioeconomic status and family dynamics to provide more specific family guidance during the transition to parenthood. Realistic information on the changes in family dynamics after childbirth should be given to pregnant parents.     

The Swedish family: transition to parenthood

Family interaction during pregnancy and the transition to parenthood creates the social environment in which the fetus becomes part of the family, family relationships and roles are reorganized, and the infant's temperament appears. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among family dynamics, parental-fetal attachment, and infant temperament across the transition to parenthood. A sample of 91 families in Helsingborg, Sweden completed the Family Dynamics Measure and the Maternal/Paternal Fetal Attachment Scale during the third trimester of pregnancy. When the infant was 8-9 months old, mothers (n = 62) and fathers (n = 54) again completed the Family Dynamics Measure. The mother completed the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire as well. Overall, we found small changes in family dynamics, with an increase in perceived role conflict and mutuality reported by mothers. Fathers reported greater fetal attachment than their partners. Greater paternal- and maternal fetal attachment was related to more positive family dynamics, and maternal-fetal attachment was positively related to infant mood at 8 months. The stability of family dynamics across the transition to parenthood is a sign that most families negotiate this transition without difficulty.     

Family dynamics and infant temperament in urban Iceland.

Pregnancy is a time of transition and crisis when many families are challenged with the addition of an infant. Studies of this challenge are unknown for Icelandic families. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of pregnancy and the young infant on family dynamics and the relationship between family dynamics and the infant's developing temperament. Fifty families completed the Family Dynamics Measure during the third trimester of pregnancy and when the infant was eight months old. Mothers also completed the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Mothers perceived a decrease in role reciprocity across this transition. More stable organized families had more rhythmic infants. There was no association between family structure and either family dynamics or infant temperament. After the birth of the child, fathers perceived more role reciprocity while mothers perceived more individuation and mutuality. Mothers of second infants reported greater individuation than mothers with first infants.     

Family dynamics and postnatal depression

Research has shown that postnatal depression (PND) affects 10-15% of mothers in Western societies. PND is not easily identified and therefore it often remains undetected. Untreated depression has a detrimental effect on the mother and child and the entire family. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the state of family dynamics after delivery and whether the mother's PND was associated with family dynamics. The study used a survey covering the catchment area of one Finnish university hospital. Both primi- and multiparas took part and data were collected using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for mothers and the Family Dynamics Measure II (FDM II) for both mothers and fathers. The data were analysed using SPSS statistical programme and frequency and percentage distributions, means and standard deviations were examined. Correlations were analysed using Spearman's correlation coefficients. The significance of any differences between mothers' and fathers' scores was determined with a paired t-test. Of the families participating in the study (373 mothers and 314 partners), 13% of the mothers suffered from PND symptoms (EPDS score of 13 or more). As a whole, family dynamics in the families participating in the study were reported to be rather good. However, mothers having depressive symptoms reported more negative family dynamics compared with other families. With the exception of individuation, mothers having depressive symptoms reported more negative family dynamics than their partners. With the exception of role reciprocity, non-depressed mothers reported more positive family dynamics than their partners. Knowledge of the association of mothers' PND with family dynamics could help to develop nursing care at maternity and child welfare clinics and maternity hospitals. Depressed mothers and their families need support to be able to make family dynamics as good as possible.     

Family dynamics during the third trimester of pregnancy in Denmark

Family dynamics in Danish families during the third trimester of pregnancy were explored in relation to family structure, parity, mother-father differences, and normative versus delayed childbearing. There were differences between married and cohabiting families, first- and second-time expectant parents, mothers and fathers, and between normative and delayed first-time expectant parents. For married couples to have better family dynamics than cohabiting couples is surprising for Denmark where both marriage and cohabitation are examples of a nuclear family lifestyle. A dual-path model is conceptualized as a nursing strategy to support the couples' interrelationship during their role transition.     

Family dynamics, parental-fetal attachment and infant temperament

Family dynamics, parental-fetal attachment and infant temperament The purpose of this longitudinal study of families having their first or second baby was to explore relationships among family dynamics, paternal- and maternal-fetal attachment, and infant temperament. Data were collected from 156 women and 62 of their partners during the third trimester of pregnancy. One year later, when the infant was 8-9 months old, 75 of the women and 30 of their partners participated. In a hierarchical multiple regression analysis, after controlling for demographic variables, mutuality in the family was associated with greater maternal- and paternal-fetal attachment. Family dynamics were stable across the transition to parenthood except for an increase in role conflict reported by mothers. Sensitivity to specific family experiences by clinicians can provide assistance to families during these periods.     

Family Dynamics and Infant Temperament in Danish Families

Transition to parenthood involves the fine balance of family dynamics which both affect, and are affected by, the infant's temperament. The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in family dynamics over the transition to parenthood and the relationship of family dynamics to infant temperament. A sample of 99 families in Odense, Denmark, completed the Family Dynamics Measure in the third trimester of pregnancy and again when the infant was 8–9 months old. At this second time, the mothers also completed the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Overall we found small changes, although always in a negative direction, in family dynamics over this transition. The largest change was an increase in perceived role conflict reported by both mothers and fathers. Mothers reported more role conflict than fathers. Positive family dynamics were related to infant rhythmicity.     

Family dynamics of postnatally depressed mothers - discrepancy between expectations and reality

Background. The birth of a new family member always brings changes to family dynamics. The family has to adjust to a new situation and, although the time after childbirth is happy for most families, postnatal depression affects 10–15% of mothers annually. Aims and objectives. The purpose of this study was to ascertain families’ experiences of family dynamics when the mother suffers from postnatal depression. Design. Nine families (nine mothers, five fathers) where the mother had displayed symptoms of postnatal depression took part for the study. Methods. Data were collected through interviews with nine families where the mother had scored 13 or more on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, completed 6–8 weeks after childbirth. Families were offered the opportunity to volunteer for the interview while taking part in a follow‐up study of postnatal depression in Finland. Interviews were analysed using the principles of grounded theory. Results. The findings showed that there was great discrepancy between expectations and reality in the depressed mothers’ families. Parents, especially mothers, strove for perfection, perceived the infant to tie them down and had high expectations of family life. Conclusions. Everyday family life and human relationships change, the depression and the parents’ attitudes towards the infant manifest themselves in different ways, and support is of great importance. Relevance to clinical practice. Women, especially those expecting their first child need a great deal of information about mood changes after childbirth and the opportunity to discuss the changes brought about by the birth of a child.     

Family dynamics of families with mental health problems in Finland

This study forms part of the International Family Dynamics Project. Its purpose was describe the family functioning of families with mental health problems on the basis of Barnhill's framework for healthy family systems. The sample consisted of 160 families in which one family member had mental health problems. Both the patients and their relatives took part. The data were collected by questionnaires, i.e. The Family Dynamics Measure and The Family Dynamics Questionnaire. According to the results, mental health patients described family functioning as fairly poor, while relatives described it as fairly good. However, patients' and relatives' perceptions of family functioning did not differ significantly. There were some statistically significant differences between patients' and relatives' perceptions of different family dynamics dimensions. Relatives reported more mutuality (P= 0.006) and clearer communication (P= 0.009) than patients. Older mental health patients reported more isolation than patients under 30. Relatives who mentioned some serious illness in the family reported more role conflict than those who didnt. No differences were found by gender, family structure or education. The results indicated that the mental health problems of a single family member did not impair family dynamics. The study showed that the resources and functioning of families are fairly good in spite of the illness in the family.     

Self-reported adjustment, chronic sorrow, and coping of parents of children with Down syndrome

Mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome were surveyed on overall patterns of adjustment and on frequency of chronic sorrow and coping behaviors. Fathers overwhelmingly (83%) depicted their adjustment in terms of steady, gradual recovery, while the majority of mothers (68%) reported a peaks-and-valleys, periodic crises pattern; chi 2 = 8.64, p less than .01. Mothers also reported higher frequencies for chronic sorrow as well as for behaviors such as self-blame and expression of negative affect. Thus, mothers and fathers in the same family may experience distinct differences in adjustment and coping as parents of a handicapped child.     

A change in life as experienced by first-time fathers

Research suggests that the attitude of men towards pregnancy, childbirth and child-caring is different from that of women. Up to now, research has focused mainly on motherhood. The aim of this study was to explore first-time fathers' experiences during early infancy of their children. Grounded theory and constant comparative method were used and 20 fathers aged 20-48 participated. Interviews were carried out in 2002-2003. 'Changing life' emerged as the core category consisting of the categories: becoming a father, alternating between work and home, changing relationship towards partner and developing relationship with their child. Changing life implied that they have left bachelor life and become responsible for a child. Becoming a father was much more fantastic than they could have imagined and they suggested that they performed childcare to the same extent as the mother when both parents were at home. Still fathers viewed the mother as the main parent, partly because of their alternating between work and home and because the mothers breast-feed the infants. Fathers' attitude towards breast-feeding seemed to be ambiguous; it was a matter of necessity, but made them feel insignificant. Changing relationship towards partner was common but it was not necessarily for the worst and often resulted in a more closely united relationship. However, tiredness because of lack of sleep could result in increased irritability towards problems. Developing relationship with their child implied increasing possibilities to learn to know the infant's signals. Fathers are one of two parents, and hence are important for their child's growth and development, emotional health and cognitive development. Knowledge about first-time fathers' experiences during the early infancy of their children may bring about increased support from midwives and child health nurses.     

Impact of chronic illness in children on parental living conditions. A population-based study in a Swedish primary care district.

In a geographically defined child population aged 0-15, every twelfth child suffered from chronic illness. Their parents and randomly selected control children's parents were asked about their living conditions using questionnaires. Non-responders (30%) had the same sociodemographic profile as responders. The socioeconomic level in index families (n = 95) was lower than in control families (n = 166). Both parents worked fewer hours in index than in control families. Index mothers had more health problems and sick days than control mothers. The parents' social relations were most hampered by having children with allergic disorders or mental retardation. Despite reduced hours, more absence from work to care for sick children, and reduced leisure activities, two thirds of the parents of moderately/severely disabled children found it difficult to cater adequately to the needs of their child. A family approach is recommended to provide comprehensive care of children with chronic illness, in which both specialized and primary care are needed.     

Patterns of family adaptation to childhood asthma

This study examined patterns in adaptation among parents with a child who had moderate to severe persistent asthma. Specifically, we were interested in examining the differences in adaptation between mothers and fathers in which it was hypothesized that gender effects would be obtained in patterns of coping. Eighty-four parents participated in the study, representing 37 intact families in which both parents were present and 13 single-parent families. Within intact families, mothers exhibited greater efforts than fathers in coping patterns including strategies to acquire social support outside the family, enhance self-worth, and decrease psychological tensions. When compared to mothers in single-parent families, mothers within intact families had a greater tendency to use coping patterns related to family integration and cooperation. Such findings demonstrate a need for additional support for mothers in their role in caring for the chronically ill child. The implications of these findings for clinical practice are discussed.     

Mothers and Fathers of Children with Cerebral Palsy: Differences in Future Expectations

Parents’ expectations are known to be a central component in children’s development through multiple pathways; however, limited information exists regarding expectations of parents of children with developmental disabilities. The purpose of the current study was to examine future expectations of parents of children with cerebral palsy (CP), as well as the differences in expectations between mothers and fathers. Forty-nine mothers and fathers of children with CP (6–12 years) participated in this study. Parents completed a Parental Future Expectations Questionnaire for Children with Disabilities, and a Perception of Child’s Ability questionnaire, as well as the Pediatric Evaluation Disability Inventory (PEDI). The Gross Motor Function Measure-66 (GMFM-66) was completed by physical therapists. Parental differences in future expectations were analyzed and multiple-stepwise regressions established parental expectations’ predictors. Parents’ expectations correlated with their child’s characteristics. Parents of children with lower levels of functioning reported lower expectations. No differences were found between mothers’ and fathers’ future expectations; however, differences were found between expectations’ predictors. Predictors of mothers’ expectations were their perceptions of their child’s abilities as well as child’s performance. Fathers’ predictors were child’s level of functional impairment and their perceptions of their child’s abilities. The results indicate that parental expectations relate to their child’s functional ability and differ between parents in relation to the child’s level of impairment (fathers) or child’s actual performance (mothers). These differences should be acknowledged by clinicians when they provide specific support for children with chronic physical disabilities and their families.     

Early clinical assessment for harsh child discipline strategies.

PURPOSE: To examine the relationships among four maternal variables: 1) prenatal report of discipline expectant mothers received when they were children, 2) prenatal intentions for disciplining one's own child, 3) report of intended child discipline strategies when infant is 8 months old, and 4) observed maternal role sufficiency behaviors. DESIGN: Replication and extension study; 3-wave prospective longitudinal design. METHODS: The procedure consisted of prenatal clinic interviews in which women (N = 185) reported how their mothers handled specific child behaviors and how they intended to handle the same behaviors with their children. During a home visit when their babies were 8 months old, the mothers (n = 126) were again asked how they intended to handle these behaviors, and observations were made of maternal role sufficiency behaviors. Correlation and regression analyses were performed with data generated from an adaptation of the Ways of Handling Irritating Behavior scale, the NCAST Teaching Scale, and the HOME scale. RESULTS: A significant relationship was found between mothers' prenatal reports of discipline received as a child and prenatal reports of intentions for disciplining their own children. For mothers of infants, reported intentions for future child discipline strategies were predicted by their prenatal reports. Mothers with clinically at-risk scores on the NCAST Teaching Scale and HOME scale reported more intended harsh child discipline strategies than those not at-risk. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Assessment for harsh, nonnurturing child discipline strategies during prenatal and well-baby health maintenance checks may assist in uncovering "red flags" for early intervention to reduce the risk of later child abuse and neglect.     

Very low birth-weight infants: parental visiting and telephoning during initial infant hospitalization

The purposes of this study were to examine visiting and telephoning patterns of families of very low birth-weight (VLBW) infants during their initial hospitalization and to identify factors related to visiting and telephoning. The sample of 65 VLBW infants (less than or equal to 1,500 gm) and their families was followed for 6 weeks in the special care nurseries. Mothers were the primary visitors, with the typical mother visiting the nursery twice per week. Fathers and other family members made most of their visits in the first few weeks with minimal involvement thereafter. During a typical week the number of telephone calls to the nursery from mothers ranged from one to three. Fathers and other family members made minimal calls. Significantly fewer visits were made by families in which the mother was unmarried, the mother was younger, Medicaid was the type of insurance, annual income was less than $10,000, and private transportation was unavailable. There were no significant relationships between total number of telephone calls made and maternal demographic variables.     

Marital and parenting satisfaction and infant care self-efficacy during the transition to parenthood: the effect of infant sex

The purpose of this follow-up study was to examine the effect of infant sex on changes in and differences between parents' reports of infant care self-efficacy and parenting and marital satisfaction from 4 months to 12 months after the birth of their first child. A convenience sample of 32 couples was selected from 44 couples who participated in a longitudinal study of the development of parenting satisfaction and infant care self-efficacy during the first 4 months after the birth of a first child (Brage Hudson, Elek, Fleck, 2001). Couples completed a demographic questionnaire, the Infant Care Survey (ICS, Froman Owen, 1989), the What Being the Parent of a New Baby is Like--Revised Questionnaire (WPBL-R, Pridham Chang, 1989), and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, Spanier, 1976, 1989) 4 and 12 months postpartum. Infant care self-efficacy, but not parenting satisfaction, increased from 4 to 12 months; mothers reported higher infant care self-efficacy and parenting satisfaction than fathers at both times. Fathers of boys reported greater parenting satisfaction and infant care self-efficacy at 12 months than fathers of girls. Marital satisfaction decreased from 4 to 12 months for both mothers and fathers. Significant relationships existed among infant care self-efficacy, parenting satisfaction, and marital satisfaction at both 4 and 12 months postpartum. Implications for families and for nursing interventions are discussed.     

Differences in stress and coping for mothers and fathers of children with Asperger's syndrome and nonverbal learning disorders

Research conducted on families of children with disabilities shows that family cohesion and positive family outcomes are influenced by how mothers and fathers cope with raising their child with disabilities. This study was designed to examine stress and coping differences between mothers and fathers (n = 103) of children with Asperger's syndrome (AS) and nonverbal learning disorders (NLD). A repeated measure design was used to compare how mothers and fathers cope with caring for a particular child to control for differences in the severity and nature of the disability across children. Few studies that compare mothers and fathers do so at the couple level. Responses indicated that mothers had higher rates of stress related to family problems and pessimism about their child's future, higher rates of antidepressant use, and higher rates of therapy use than did fathers. Mothers found some coping strategies more helpful than fathers did. Maternal education and child's age also were related to some stress and coping variables. Implications for nurses and future research are discussed.