Odour-evoked [Ca2+] transients in mitral cell dendrites of frog olfactory glomeruli

We measured Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+], transients in mitral cell distal apical dendritic tufts produced by physiological odour stimulation of the olfactory epithelium and electrical stimulation of the olfactory nerve (ON) using two-photon scanning and conventional wide-field microscopy of Ca2+-Green-1 dextran in an in vitro frog nose-brain preparation. Weak or strong ON shock-evoked fluorescence transients always had short latency with an onset 0-10 ms after the onset of the bulb local field potential, rapidly increasing to a peak of up to 25% fractional fluorescence change (DeltaF/F) in 10-30 ms, were blocked by 10 microM CNQX, decaying with a time constant of about 1 s. With stronger ON shocks that activated many receptor axons, an additional, delayed, sustained AP5-sensitive component (peak at approximately 0.5 s, up to 40% DeltaF/F maximum) could usually be produced. Odour-evoked [Ca2+] transients sometimes displayed a rapid onset phase that peaked within 50 ms but always had a sustained phase that peaked 0.5-1.5 s after onset, regardless of the strength of the odour or the amplitude of the response. These were considerably larger (up to 150% DeltaF/F) than those evoked by ON shock. Odour-evoked [Ca2+] transients were also distinguished from ON shock-evoked transients by tufts in different glomeruli responding with different delays (time to onset differed by up to 1.5 s between different tufts for the same odour). Odour-evoked [Ca2+] transients were increased by AMPA-kainate receptor blockade, but substantially blocked by AP5. Electrical stimulation of the lateral olfactory tract (5-6 stimuli at 10 Hz) that evoked granule cell feedback inhibition, blocked 60-100% of the odour-evoked [Ca2+] transient in tufts when delivered within about 0.5 s of the odour. LOT-mediated inhibition was blocked by 10 microM bicuculline.     

钙离子在颞叶癫癎大鼠海马神经元内的动态变化

目的探讨海马神经元内钙离子浓度的动态变化在颞叶癫癎中的可能作用. 方法应用新一代钙荧光指示剂Fluo-3/AM,采用激光共聚焦扫描显微镜技术对颞叶癫癎大鼠海马神经元内的钙离子浓度变化进行动态观察. 结果各时间点癫癎组大鼠海马神经细胞的平均荧光像素数(3 h634 942±27 735;12 h697 066±14 863;7 d732 844±23 107;60 d800 030±16 450)均明显高于对照组(3 h396 499±31 951;12 h389 498±33 257;7 d389 809±29 486;60 d392 758±35 197),差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01);癫癎大鼠海马神经细胞内钙离子浓度的变化可分3个阶段急性期细胞内的钙离子浓度先急剧升高,然后缓慢升高;静止期开始时钙离子浓度较急性期后期先稍有下降,然后再次缓慢上升;到慢性复发期,钙离子浓度达到最高峰,并维持在高水平. 结论在颞叶癫癎的发生发展过程中海马细胞内存在钙稳态失调,该变化导致了神经元内游离钙离子浓度的急性和持久性升高,后者可能诱发了颞叶癫癎的自发性复发性发作.     

皮质酮对TNF-α致海马神经元细胞内钙变化的作用

应用荧光影像系统检测了原代培养海马神经元内钙离子的变化情况,并分析了皮质酮、肿瘤坏死因子(TNF-α)对谷氨酸引起的海马神经元内钙升高的调节作用及其皮质酮对TNF-α作用的调节.结果显示:(1)使用不同浓度的皮质酮处理海马神经元48 h后,观察到10-6 mol/L和10-7 mol/L的皮质酮可诱导海马神经元静息钙浓度升高,但10-8 mol/L和10-9 mol/L的皮质酮对海马神经元内钙无影响.(2)10-6 mol/L皮质酮处理海马神经元48 h后,对谷氨酸诱导的海马神经元内钙升高无调节作用.(3)使用100 ngTNF-α处理海马神经元48 h后,既可诱导海马神经元静息钙升高,也可抑制谷氨酸引起的海马神经元内钙升高.(4)皮质酮可逆转TNF-α对海马神经元静息钙浓度的调节作用,但对TNF-α抑制谷氨酸升钙效应无影响.     

Variation in the pattern of [Ca2+]i change induced by acetylcholine in cultured hippocampal neurons

Acetylcholine (ACh) caused various patterns of change in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. We studied the underlying mechanisms of the [Ca2+]i changes with simultaneous recording of [Ca2+]i and membrane potential/current. In most cases, [Ca2+]i rise was accompanied by a membrane depolarization. The [Ca2+]i change was significantly reduced when the membrane was voltage clamped, which implies that most of the [Ca2+]i rise results from the Ca2+ influx through the voltage-gated Ca2+ channel activated by the membrane depolarization. The membrane depolarizations were classified into two types, one associated with membrane conductance decrease and the other associated with membrane conductance increase. The former results from potassium conductance ((gK+) decrease, and the latter may result from the activation of a Na(+)-permeable channel. However, [Ca2+]i elevation was also observed in some neurons showing membrane hyperpolarization in response to ACh. This seems to show that ACh liberates Ca2+ from the intracellular Ca2+ store, resulting in the activation of a calcium-dependent K+ channel (KCa). The variations of ACh response in the hippocampal neurons seem to result from a variety of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and various species of ion channels governed by those receptors.     

The triakontatetraneuropeptide TTN increases [CA2+]i in rat astrocytes through activation of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors.

Astrocytes synthesize a series of regulatory peptides called endozepines, which act as endogenous ligands of benzodiazepine receptors. We have recently shown that one of these endozepines, the triakontatetraneuropeptide TTN, stimulates DNA synthesis in astroglial cells. The purpose of the present study was to determine the mechanism of action of TTN on cultured rat astrocytes. Binding of the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor ligand [3H]Ro5-4864 to intact astrocytes was displaced by TTN, whereas its C-terminal fragment (TTN[17-34], the octadecaneuropeptide ODN) did not compete for [3H]Ro5-4864 binding. Microfluorimetric measurement of cytosolic calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i) with the fluorescent probe indo-1 showed that TTN (10(-10) to 10(-6) M) provokes a concentration-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i in cultured astrocytes. Simultaneous administration of TTN (10(-8) M) and Ro5-4864 (10(-5) M) induced an increase in [Ca2+]i similar to that obtained with Ro5-4864 alone. In contrast, the effects of TTN (10(-8) M) and ODN (10(-8) M) on [Ca2+]i were strictly additive. Chelation of extracellular Ca2+ by EGTA (6 mM) or blockage of Ca2+ channels with Ni2+ (2 mM) abrogated the stimulatory effect of TTN. The calcium influx evoked by TTN (10(-7) M) or by Ro5-4864 (10(-5) M) was not affected by the N- and T-type calcium channel blockers omega-conotoxin (10(-6) M) and mibefradil (10(-6) M), but was significantly reduced by the L-type calcium channel blocker nifedipine (10(-7) M). Patch-clamp studies showed that, at negative potentials, TTN (10(-7) M) induced a sustained depolarization. Reduction of the chloride concentration in the extracellular solution shifted the reversal potential from 0 mV to a positive potential. These data show that TTN, acting through peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors, provokes chloride efflux, which in turn induces calcium influx via L-type calcium channels in rat astrocytes.     

Cerebral type 2 astroglia are heterogeneous with respect to their ability to respond to neuroligands linked to calcium mobilization.

Very little information is available concerning the pharmacology of type 2 astroglia. During the past decade it has become apparent that two distinct lineages of astroglial cells can be defined in vitro. These two lineages are commonly referred to as type 1 and type 2 and are distinguished from each other on the basis of their morphological features and antigenic phenotypes. In contrast to type 1 astroglia, very little is known about the pharmacology of type 2 astroglia. The lack of information concerning the responsiveness of these cells stems primarily from difficulties encountered in isolating large numbers of type 2 astroglia free of other cell types. In the present study video- and photometer-based imaging systems were used to monitor the influence of a series of neuroligands on the intracellular calcium levels of individual cerebral type 2 astroglia in order to assess their expression of calcium-mobilizing receptors. The responses of 85 immunocytochemically identified cerebral type 2 astroglia to bradykinin (BK), norepinephrine (NE), histamine (HIST), carbachol (CARB), 2-methyl-thio ATP (2MT-ATP), glutamate (GLUT), and serotonin (5-HT) were analyzed. Approximately 50% of cerebral type 2 astroglia responded to BK, NE, HIST, CARB, and 2MT-ATP whereas only 16% and 9% of the cells responded to GLUT and 5-HT, respectively. The number of neuroligands that increased calcium in individual cells ranged from 0 to 6. These responses are quite similar to those previously demonstrated in cultured cerebral type 1 astroglia. No pattern of receptor co-expression was observed for the different neuroligands tests.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Receptor-activated Ca2+ increases in vibrodissociated cortical astrocytes: A nonenzymatic method for acute isolation of astrocytes

A new nonenzymatic method for the acute isolation of astrocytes from rat cerebral cortex is described. A vibratory device was used to dissociate the cells from thin brain slices, and the method yielded fresh and relatively well-preserved astrocytes without previous enzyme incubation. These cells were examined in a microspectrofluorometric system for measurement of changes in intracellular free calcium concentrations ([Ca²⁺]_i), and their expression of various neurotransmitter receptors was determined. Acutely isolated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes (p7–p18) were seen to respond to the metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist (1S,3R)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (ACPD, 10^-4 M) with increases in [Ca²⁺]_i, and this response was blocked by (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5 dicarboxylic acid (AIDA, 10^-3 M), an antagonist to group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors. The δ-opioid receptor agonist D-Pen², D-Pen⁵-enkehalin (DPDPE, 10^-6 M) evoked [Ca²⁺]_i increases that were blocked by the δ-opioid antagonist ICI 174.388 (10^-5 M). The astrocytes failed to respond to 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, 10^-5 M), although the same cells subsequently were found to respond to other agonists. Furthermore, [Ca²⁺]_i responses evoked by phenylephrine (10^-5 M) were blocked by prazosin (0.2⋅10^-6 M), suggesting the expression of α₁-adrenergic receptors on the acutely isolated astrocytes. The cells were also shown to react with [Ca²⁺]_i increases in response to depolarization with high extracellular potassium concentrations (50⋅10^-3 M). The signals induced by depolarization were not seen in Ca²⁺-free buffer, indicating the presence of voltage-activated calcium channels in these cells. Thus, the present study confirms some of the results earlier obtained in cell cultures, suggesting that cortical astrocytes in vivo express glutamate, opiate, and adrenergic receptors, coupled to increases in [Ca²⁺]_i, whereas no receptors for 5-HT could be detected. J. Neurosci. Res. 54:390–401, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Mechanism of hemolysate-induced [Ca2+]i elevation in cultured fibroblasts.

Erythrocyte lysate (hemolysate) released from blood clot after subarachnoid hemorrhage is the causative agent for chronic cerebral vasospasm, a prolonged contraction of cerebral arteries. Fibroblasts, the outer layer cells of vessel wall that in contact with blood clot directly, may contribute to cerebral vasospasm. However, the effect of hemolysate on intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) mobilization in fibroblasts has not been studied. We investigated hemolysate-induced [Ca2+]i mobilization in cultured neonatal human dermal and canine middle cerebral arterial fibroblasts by using fura-2 microfluorimetry. Hemolysate increased [Ca2+]i by releasing internal Ca2+ stores and promoting Ca2+ entry. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors partially but significantly reduced the effect of hemolysate. The major components of hemolysate, oxyhemoglobin (OxyHb) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) failed to mimic the effect of hemolysate. In cultured canine middle cerebral arterial fibroblasts, hemolysate produced similar Ca2+ mobilization to that of dermal cells. OxyHb and ATP failed again to reproduce the effect of hemolysate. We conclude that hemolysate increases [Ca2+]i in fibroblasts and this effect of hemolysate is not mediated by OxyHb or ATP but by some unknown factors.     

l-Menthol-induced [Ca2+]i increase and impulses in cultured sensory neurons

We investigated the effects of l-menthol on cultured dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells, instead of free nerve endings of sensory fibers. Using Fura-2 microfluorimetry, we identified a few DRG neurons that showed an increase in intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in response to l-menthol. They made up only 10% of the neurons activated by a high K+ solution. l-Menthol induced the [Ca2+]i increase in a dose-dependent manner, with an EC50 of 37.9 microM and a Hill coefficient of 0.97. A related compound, cyclohexanol, had no effect. When extracellular Ca2+ was removed, l-menthol did not induce the [Ca2+]i increase. Whole-cell current-clamp recordings revealed that l-menthol induced depolarization (13.2 mV, receptor potential) leading to impulses. We conclude that l-menthol induced the impulses through activation of menthol receptors in a small subset of the cultured sensory neurons.     

[Ca^2＋]i change in hippocampal neurons influenced by preconditioning of etomidate fat emulsion following cerebral ischemia in rats

BACKGROUND: It is known that intravenous anesthetic etomidate fat emulsion has cerebral protection. Now many scholars focus on the research of its cerebral protection from molecular biology, but the mechanism of cerebral protection is still fully unclear. OBJECTIVE: To observe the influence of etomidate fat emulsion on the [Ca2+]i in hippocampal neurons during the transient cerebral ischemia injury in rats. DESIGN: Randomized controlled observation. SETTING: Weifang Medical College. MATERIALS: This study was carried out in the functional laboratory of Weifang Medical College between October 2005 and March 2006. Twenty-four male healthy Wistar rats, aged 3 to 4 months, were involved. Etomidate fat emulsion was provided by the limited company of En-hua Medical Bloc in Jiangsu Province (code of H20020511) and the other agents and materials were provided by Laboratory Center of Weifang Medical College. METHODS: The 24 Wistar rats were randomized into 3 groups: sham-operation group, model group and etomidate preconditioning group, with 8 rats in each. Rat models of transient cerebral ischemia injury were made by the ligation of bilateral carotid arteries combined with descending blood pressure in the latter two groups. Before ischemia (ligation of bilateral common carotid artery), rats in the etomidate preconditioning group were intraperitoneally injected with 12 mg/kg etomidate fat emulsion and then persistently intraperitoneally injected with etomidate fat emulsion at 1.0 mg/kg per minute. Rats in the model group were not administrated. Rats in the sham-operation group were only performed bilateral common carotid artery isolation. When rats were modeled, their brain tissues were quickly taken out and detected. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Change of the fluorescence pixel value of the [Ca2+]i in each group by the laser scanning confocal microscope. RESULTS: Twenty-four rats were involved in the final analysis. Fluorescence pixel value in the sham-operation group was in the low level. Fluorescence pixel value in the model group was significantly higher than that in the sham-operation group (P < 0.01). Fluorescence pixel value in the etomidate preconditioning group was significantly lower than that in the model group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The protection of etomidate fat emulsion to the transient cerebral ischemic injury in rats is associated with the inhibition to the increase of [Ca2+]i to some extent.     

利用激光共聚焦图像系统检测实验性变态反应性脑脊髓炎动物淋巴细胞内游离钙浓度

目的　进一步探讨多发性硬化 (MS)和实验性变态反应性脑脊髓炎 (EAE)的发病机制。方法　取EAE动物的脾细胞 ,制备淋巴细胞悬液 ,以荧光探针Fluo 3 AM负载后 ,通过激光扫描共聚焦显微镜 (InsightplusIQ ,Meridian ,USA)检测细胞荧光强度 ,其荧光强度与细胞内钙离子浓度成正比。结果　EAE组淋巴细胞内钙离子浓度明显高于正常对照组。结论　细胞内钙在EAE动物淋巴细胞的过度活化方面发挥重要作用     

Low-[Mg2+]-induced Ca2+ fluctuations in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures

We show here by whole field monitoring of free intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i), locally recorded field potential (fp) and external [Ca2+], that low-[Mg2+] induces seizure like events (SLEs) accompanied by simultaneous fluctuations of [Ca2+]i and [Ca2+]e in cultured hippocampal slices. Within a SLE, complex [Ca2+]e fluctuations are seen throughout phases of Ca2+ depletion (tonic) and Ca2+ recovery (clonic) of the extracellular space. Information theory entropy-based analyses revealed strong asymmetric associations of [Ca2+]i and [Ca2+]e kinetics. By contrast, signal-associations between SLEs were found to be weak and of symmetric nature distinguishing seizure-like and interictal events by extensive coupling and decoupling of [Ca2+]i and [Ca2+]e fluctuations, respectively.     

细胞外钙离子浓度对海马神经元兴奋性的影响

目的 在不同的生理、病理情况下,中枢神经系统细胞外钙离子浓度([Ca2 ]o)下降,导致神经元兴奋性增高.本研究的主要目的是探讨低钙条件下神经元兴奋性增高的机制,从而为临床治疗神经元过度兴奋性疾病探索新的治疗途径.方法 应用穿孔膜片钳及细胞培养技术,记录不同细胞外钙离子浓度对海马神经元兴奋性的影响.结果 低钙环境使神经元兴奋性显著增高,阈电位水平显著降低,动作电位幅度显著增高.并且出乎意料的是,mAHP拮抗剂apamin及sAHP拮抗剂Iso对海马神经元兴奋性的影响没有统计学的意义.作为INaP拮抗剂,低浓度的河豚毒(TTX)虽然阻断了低钙环境中神经元兴奋性的增加,但同时也阻断了正常钙离子浓度下的动作电位的发放.结论 低钙环境中海马神经元阈电位的显著下降可能是导致神经元兴奋性增高的主要原因.     

Decoding glutamate receptor activation by the Ca2+ sensor protein hippocalcin in rat hippocampal neurons

Hippocalcin is a Ca²⁺‐binding protein that belongs to a family of neuronal Ca²⁺sensors and is a key mediator of many cellular functions including synaptic plasticity and learning. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in hippocalcin signalling remain illusive. Here we studied whether glutamate receptor activation induced by locally applied or synaptically released glutamate can be decoded by hippocalcin translocation. Local AMPA receptor activation resulted in fast hippocalcin‐YFP translocation to specific sites within a dendritic tree mainly due to AMPA receptor‐dependent depolarization and following Ca²⁺influx via voltage‐operated calcium channels. Short local NMDA receptor activation induced fast hippocalcin‐YFP translocation in a dendritic shaft at the application site due to direct Ca²⁺influx via NMDA receptor channels. Intrinsic network bursting produced hippocalcin‐YFP translocation to a set of dendritic spines when they were subjected to several successive synaptic vesicle releases during a given burst whereas no translocation to spines was observed in response to a single synaptic vesicle release and to back‐propagating action potentials. The translocation to spines required Ca²⁺influx via synaptic NMDA receptors in which Mg²⁺ block is relieved by postsynaptic depolarization. This synaptic translocation was restricted to spine heads and even closely (within 1–2 μm) located spines on the same dendritic branch signalled independently. Thus, we conclude that hippocalcin may differentially decode various spatiotemporal patterns of glutamate receptor activation into site‐ and time‐specific translocation to its targets. Hippocalcin also possesses an ability to produce local signalling at the single synaptic level providing a molecular mechanism for homosynaptic plasticity.     

Growth factors upregulate astrocyte [Ca2+]i oscillation by increasing SERCA2b expression

Previously, we reported upregulation of astrocyte [Ca(2+)](i) oscillation by growth factors (i.e., conversion of glutamate-induced sustained [Ca(2+)](i) increase in astrocytes cultured in a defined medium to [Ca(2+)](i) oscillation by EGF and bFGF treatment over 48 h) (Morita et al., (2003) J Neurosci 23:10944-10952). As our previous study also showed that these growth factors increase intracellular Ca(2+) stores, this study was performed to investigate the mechanism underlying loading of intracellular Ca(2+) stores in astrocytes, especially sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA), as a candidate mechanism by which growth factors upregulate [Ca(2+)](i) oscillation. The results indicated that the growth factors upregulated a SERCA inhibitor-sensitive component of [Ca(2+)](i) clearance, and increased expression of the SERCA subtype, SERCA2b. Furthermore, treating the growth factor-treated astrocytes with a low concentration of SERCA inhibitor to partially inhibit SERCA reduced the level of intracellular Ca(2+) storage and reversed glutamate-induced [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations to sustained [Ca(2+)](i) increases. Thus, the upregulation of [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations was attributed to the upregulation of SERCA activities. These results indicated that these growth factors regulate the pattern of glutamate-induced astrocyte [Ca(2+)](i) increases via SERCA2b expression.     

Mg2+快速抑制谷氨酸诱导大鼠海马神经元内游离钙浓度升高的作用及特征

目的　采用钙离子特异性荧光指示剂Fura 2 /AM ,使用光电联合检测系统检测镁离子 (Mg2 + )对谷氨酸培养的海马神经元内游离钙离子浓度 ([Ca2 + ]i)的影响和特征。方法　实验设计分三组 (n =2 6 ) ,向细胞吹药各 2 0秒 :①组 1× 10 -5mol/L谷氨酸 ;②组同时 1× 10 -5mol/L谷氨酸和 1× 10 -5mol/LMg2 + ;③组即在②组回到基线后给 1× 10 -5mol/L谷氨酸。结果　①组 [Ca2 + ]i 明显升高 ;②组 [Ca2 + ]I 的变化明显变小 ,其峰值明显下降 ,且Phase 1上升速度减慢 ,Phase 2的时间也有所缩短 ,二相之间的平台期相对延长 ;③组出现与①组中相似的钙震荡表现 ,但Phase 1和Phase 2的时间均缩短 ,△ [Ca2 + ]i 的变化稍低。结论　Mg2 + 可快速抑制谷氨酸诱导大鼠海马神经元内游离钙浓度升高。     

The ouabain-induced [Ca2+]i increase in leech Retzius neurones is mediated by voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels

In leech Retzius neurones the inhibition of the Na+/K+ pump by ouabain causes an increase in the cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i). To elucidate the mechanism of this increase we investigated the changes in [Ca2+]i (measured by Fura-2) and in membrane potential that were induced by inhibiting the Na+/K+ pump in bathing solutions of different ionic composition. The results show that Na+/K+ pump inhibition induced a [Ca2+]i increase only if the cells depolarized sufficiently in the presence of extracellular Ca2+. Specifically, the relationship between [Ca2+]i and the membrane potential upon Na+/K+ pump inhibition closely matched the corresponding relationship upon activation of the voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels by raising the extracellular K+ concentration. It is concluded that the [Ca2+]i increase caused by inhibiting the Na+/K+ pump in leech Retzius neurones is exclusively due to Ca2+ influx through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels.     

Orexin B/hypocretin 2 increases glutamatergic transmission to ventral tegmental area neurons

The orexins (hypocretins) play a crucial role in arousal, feeding and reward. Highly relevant to these functions, orexin-containing neurons from the lateral hypothalamus project densely to the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is the origin of dopamine projections implicated in motivation and reward. Orexin A/hypocretin 1 (oxA/hcrt-1) can enable long-term changes associated with drugs of abuse; however, the effects of orexin B/hypocretin 2 (oxB/hcrt-2) on excitatory synaptic transmission in the VTA are unknown. We used whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology in rat horizontal midbrain slices to examine the effects of oxB/hcrt-2 on excitatory synaptic transmission. We observed that oxB/hcrt-2 has distinct effects from oxA/hcrt-1 in the VTA. oxB/Hcrt-2 (100 nM) increased presynaptic glutamate release in addition to a postsynaptic potentiation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs). The oxB/hcrt-2-mediated postsynaptic potentiation of NMDARs was mediated via activation of orexin/hypocretin 2 (OX2/Hcrt-2) receptors and protein kinase C (PKC). Furthermore, the increase in transmitter release probability was also PKC-dependent, but not through activation of orexin/hypocretin 1 (OX1/Hcrt-1) or OX2/Hcrt-2 receptors. Finally, oxB/hcrt-2 or the selective OX2/Hcrt-2 receptor agonist ala(11)-D-leu(15)-orexin B, significantly reduced spike-timing-induced long-term potentiation. Taken together, these results support a dual role for oxB/hcrt-2 in mediating enhanced glutamatergic transmission in the VTA, and suggest that oxA/hcrt-1 and oxB/hcrt-2 exert different functional roles in modulating the enhancement of the motivational components of arousal and feeding.     

IL-1beta inhibits IK and increases [Ca2+]i in the carotid body glomus cells and increases carotid sinus nerve firings in the rat

Increasing evidence indicates that there exists a reciprocal communication between the immune system and the brain. Interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta), a proinflammatory cytokine produced during immune challenge, is believed to be one of the mediators of immune-to-brain communication, but how it gets into the brain is unknown because of its large molecular weight and difficulty in crossing the blood-brain barrier. Our previous work has demonstrated that IL-1 receptor type I is strongly expressed in the glomus cells of rat carotid body (CB), a well characterized polymodal chemoreceptive organ which serves not only for the detection of hypoxia, hypercapnia and acidity, but also for low temperature and blood glucose. The present study was designed to test whether IL-1beta could stimulate the CB glomus cells and alter the discharge properties in the carotid sinus nerve, the afferent nerve innervating the organ. The results from whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and calcium imaging showed that extracellular application of IL-1beta significantly decreased the outward potassium current and triggered a transient rise in [Ca(2+)](i) in the cultured glomus cells of rat CB. Furthermore, by using extracellular recordings and pharmacological intervention, it was found that IL-1beta stimulation of the CB in the anaesthetized rat in vivo significantly increased the discharge rate in the carotid sinus nerve, most probably mediated by ATP release. This experiment provides evidence that the CB responds to cytokine stimulation and proposes the possibility that the CB might play a role in immune-to-brain communication.     

Dantrolene sodium is able to reduce the resting ionic [Ca2+]i in muscle from humans with malignant hyperthermia

Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a hereditary myopathy, triggered when susceptible patients are exposed to a depolarizing muscle relaxant and/or potent volatile anesthetics. We have studied the effects of dantrolene on the free [Ca2+]i of intercostal muscle biopsies obtained from two MH-susceptible patients before and after administration of dantrolene orally (2.5 mg/kg for 3 days) and intravenously (1.0 mg/kg 2 hours before the biopsy). The free [Ca2+]i was measured by Ca2+-selective microelectrodes. The mean resting free [Ca2+]i in the MH-susceptible muscle before dantrolene treatment was 0.42 +/- 0.01 microM (mean +/- SEM, n = 12). The administration of dantrolene reduced this value to 0.27 +/- 0.01 microM (n = 14). There was no detectable difference in the resting membrane potential after dantrolene. These results represent the first direct demonstration that dantrolene is able to reduce the resting free [Ca2+]i in skeletal muscle of MH-susceptible patients.