Nerve transfer in brachial plexus injuries--comparative analysis of surgical procedures

Nerve transfer is the only possibility for nerve repair in cases of the brachial plexus traction injuries with spinal roots avulsion. From 1980. until 2000. in Institute of Neurosurgery, Clinical Center of Serbia, nerve transfer has been performed in 127(79%) of 159 patients with traction injuries of brachial plexus, i.e., 204 reinnervation procedures has been performed using different donor nerves. We achieved good or satisfactory arm abduction and full range or satisfactory elbow flexion through reinnervation of the axillary and musculocutaneous nerve using different donor nerves in 143 of 204 reinnervations, which presents general rate of useful functional recovery in 70.1% of cases. Mean values of the rate of useful functional recovery in individual modalities of nerve transfer in our series are 50.1% for intercostal and/or spinal accessory nerve transfer, 64.5% for plexo-plexal nerve transfer, 81.7% for regional nerve transfer, and 87.1% for combine nerve transfer.     

Outcomes of surgical treatment of brachial plexus injuries using nerve grafting and nerve transfers

Between 1993 and 1998, 32 male patients with brachial plexus injuries were surgically treated. Eighteen interfascicular grafting and 71 extraplexal neurotization procedures were performed separately or in combination. Donor nerves were the intercostals, spinal accessory, phrenic, contralateral C7, and cervical plexus, in order of frequency. Patients were followed for a minimum of 24 (average, 35) months. Biceps function was best following grafting the musculocutaneous nerve itself, or neurotization with the phrenic nerve (100 percent grade 4), followed by neurotization with the intercostals (89.5 percent grade 3 or more) and last, grafting the C5 root or upper trunk (grade 3 in one of three patients). Phrenic to suprascapular neurotization produced the best results of shoulder abduction (40 to 90 degrees), followed by combined neurotization of the spinal accessory to suprascapular and phrenic to axillary (20 to 90 degrees). Sensory recovery over the lateral forearm and palm varied from S2 to S3+, according to the method of reconstruction.     

Surgical outcomes following nerve transfers in upper brachial plexus injuries

Background:

Brachial plexus injuries represent devastating injuries with a poor prognosis. Neurolysis, nerve repair, nerve grafts, nerve transfer, functioning free-muscle transfer and pedicle muscle transfer are the main surgical procedures for treating these injuries. Among these, nerve transfer or neurotization is mainly indicated in root avulsion injury.

Materials and Methods:

We analysed the results of various neurotization techniques in 20 patients (age group 20-41 years, mean 25.7 years) in terms of denervation time, recovery time and functional results. The inclusion criteria for the study included irreparable injuries to the upper roots of brachial plexus (C5, C6 and C7 roots in various combinations), surgery within 10 months of injury and a minimum follow-up period of 18 months. The average denervation period was 4.2 months. Shoulder functions were restored by transfer of spinal accessory nerve to suprascapular nerve (19 patients), and phrenic nerve to suprascapular nerve (1 patient). In 11 patients, axillary nerve was also neurotized using different donors - radial nerve branch to the long head triceps (7 patients), intercostal nerves (2 patients), and phrenic nerve with nerve graft (2 patients). Elbow flexion was restored by transfer of ulnar nerve motor fascicle to the motor branch of biceps (4 patients), both ulnar and median nerve motor fascicles to the biceps and brachialis motor nerves (10 patients), spinal accessory nerve to musculocutaneous nerve with an intervening sural nerve graft (1 patient), intercostal nerves (3rd, 4th and 5th) to musculocutaneous nerve (4 patients) and phrenic nerve to musculocutaneous nerve with an intervening graft (1 patient).

Results:

Motor and sensory recovery was assessed according to Medical Research Council (MRC) Scoring system. In shoulder abduction, five patients scored M4 and three patients M3+. Fair results were obtained in remaining 12 patients. The achieved abduction averaged 95 degrees (range, 50 - 170 degrees). Eight patients scored M4 power in elbow flexion and assessed as excellent results. Good results (M3+) were obtained in seven patients. Five patients had fair results (M2+ to M3).     

复合式神经移位术治疗臂丛根性撕脱伤

自１９８８年１１月～１９９４年１２月，应用复合式神经移位术治疗臂丛根性撕脱伤８９例。损伤原因为：摩托车撞击伤６３例，机器牵拉伤２１例，直接损伤５例。损伤类型为：上臂丛型４７例，下臂丛型１３例，全臂丛型２９例。伤后至手术时间为３周～６个月。神经移位方式主要根据不同的损伤类型选用相应的移位方式。术后随访时间为１．５～６年。疗效最佳为膈神经移位，有效率达８２．９％；其次为副神经，达６６．７％；颈丛运动支达５５．２％；肋间神经达４８．３％；健侧Ｃ７神经根移位与患侧尺神经吻合，神经再生率达９６．６％。作者认为，复合式神经移位术治疗臂丛根性撕脱伤，尤其是对上臂丛根性撕脱伤，治疗效果是令人满意的。     

Results of nerve transfer techniques for restoration of shoulder and elbow function in the context of a meta-analysis of the English literature

We report the results of 15 patients who underwent nerve transfer for restoration of shoulder and elbow function at our institution for traumatic brachial plexus palsy. We present these results in the context of a meta-analysis of the English literature, designed to quantitatively assess the efficacy of individual nerve transfers for restoration of elbow and shoulder function in a large number of patients. One thousand eighty-eight nerve transfers from 27 studies met the inclusion criteria of the analysis. Seventy-two percent of direct intercostal to musculocutaneous transfers (without interposition nerve grafts) achieved biceps strength > or =M3 versus 47% using interposition grafts. Direct intercostal transfers to the musculocutaneous nerve had a better ability to achieve > or =M4 elbow strength than transfers from the spinal accessory nerve (41% vs 29%). The suprascapular nerve fared significantly better than the axillary nerve in obtaining > or =M3 shoulder abduction (92% vs 69%). At our institution 90% of intercostal to musculocutaneous transfers (n = 10) achieved > or =M3 bicep strength and 70% achieved > or =M4 strength. Four of seven patients achieved > or =M3 shoulder abduction with a single nerve transfer and 6 of 7 regained > or =M3 strength with a dual nerve transfer. This study suggests that interposition nerve grafts should be avoided when possible when performing nerve transfers. Better results for restoration of elbow flexion have been attained with intercostal to musculocutaneous transfers than with spinal accessory nerve transfers and spinal accessory to suprascapular transfers appear to have the best outcomes for return of shoulder abduction. We conclude that nerve transfer is an effective means to restore elbow and shoulder function in brachial plexus paralysis.     

Improvement in motor function after brachial plexus surgery

Motor functional recovery of 52 patients with brachial plexus surgery followed up for more than 2 years was evaluated. Fifty-eight surgical procedures were done, including autologous nerve grafting (38 cases), neurolysis (14 cases), and neurotization (6 cases). Overall results, evaluated according to the 0 to 5 formula of the Medical Research Council, were as follows: good, 58%; fair, 15%; and poor, 27%. Good results were evident in 58% of patients with nerve grafts and in 64% of those with neurolysis. In patients with neurotization, no good recovery and only one fair recovery were seen. Patients with open injuries showed good recovery, whereas the group with closed injury showed good recovery in only 48%. Patients with closed injuries caused by traffic accidents showed a worse recovery than those caused by other means. Patients with closed injuries and nerve grafting done within 3 months of injury or neurolysis within 6 months showed better recovery.     

选择性肌支神经转位治疗臂丛上干损伤

目的 选择最好的肌支神经转位治疗臂丛上干损伤。方法 采用选择性肌支神经转位治疗臂丛上干损伤１６例２４人次,供转位的胸背神经,副神经,胸长神经和肋间神经等与腋神经的三角肌支,肌皮神经的肱二头肌支缝接。结论 手术的关键是肌支神经与肌支神经的缝接,从而使吻合口靠近肌肉,关节功能恢复快,转位神经中以胸背神经转位效果最好。     

Restoration of Elbow Flexion by Transfer of the Phrenic Nerve to Musculocutaneous Nerve after Brachial Plexus Injuries

Traumatic brachial plexus injuries are a devastating injury that results in partial or total denervation of the muscles of the upper extremity. Treatment options that include neurolysis, nerve grafting, or neurotization (nerve transfer) has become an important procedure in the restoration of function in patients with irreparable preganglionic lesions. Restoration of elbow flexion is the primary goal in treating patients with severe brachial plexus injuries. Nerve transfers are used when spinal roots are avulsed, and proximal stumps are not available. In the present study, we analyze the results obtained in 20 patients treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer to restore elbow flexion after brachial plexus injuries. A consecutive series of 25 adult patients (21 men and 4 women) with a brachial plexus traction/crush lesion were treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer, but only 20 patients (18 men and 2 women) were followed and evaluated for at least 2 years postoperatively. All patients had been referred from other institutions. At the initial evaluation, eight patients received a diagnosis of C5-6 brachial plexus nerve injury, and in the other 12 patients, a complete brachial plexus injury was identified. Reconstruction was undertaken if no clinical or electrical evidence of biceps muscle function was seen by 3 months post injury. Functional elbow flexion was obtained in the majority of cases by phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer (14/20, 70%). At the final follow-up evaluation, elbow flexion strength was a Medical Research Council Grade 5 in two patients, Grade 4 in four patients, Grade 3 in eight patients, and Grade 2 or less in six patients. Transfer involving the phrenic nerve to restore elbow flexion seems to be an appropriate approach for the treatment of brachial plexus root avulsion. Traumatic brachial plexus injury is a devastating injury that result in partial or total denervation of the muscles of the upper extremity. Treatment options include neurolysis, nerve grafting, or neurotization (nerve transfer). Neurotization is the transfer of a functional but less important nerve to a denervated more important nerve. It has become an important procedure in the restoration of function in patients with irreparable preganglionic lesions. Restoration of elbow flexion is the primary goal in treating patients with severe brachial plexus injuries. Nerve transfers are used when spinal roots are avulsed, and proximal stumps are not available. Newer extraplexal sources include the ipsilateral phrenic nerve as reported by Gu et al. (Chin Med J 103:267–270, 1990) and contralateral C7 as reported by Gu et al. (J Hand Surg [Br] 17(B):518–521, 1992) and Songcharoen et al. (J Hand Surg [Am] 26(A):1058–1064, 2001). These nerve transfers have been introduced to expand on the limited donors. The phrenic nerve and its anatomic position directly within the surgical field makes it a tempting source for nerve transfer. Although not always, in cases of complete brachial plexus avulsion, the phrenic nerve is functioning as a result of its C3 and C4 major contributions. In the present study, we analyze the results obtained in 20 patients treated with phrenic–musculocutaneous nerve transfer to restore elbow flexion after brachial plexus injuries.     

胸腔镜辅助直视下经胸切取膈神经的解剖学研究及临床应用

目的 对膈神经胸腔内的全程解剖关系进行研究,为胸腔镜辅助直视下经胸切取全长膈神经、移位治疗臂丛神经根性损伤提供解剖学依据.方法 选用10%甲醛固定成人尸体标本10具20侧,对膈神经及其周围组织器官进行解剖学观察.临床上对17例臂丛神经损伤患者,于胸腔镜辅助直视下经胸切取膈神经的术式进行总结.结果 经锁骨下第二肋间腋前线处出口引出胸腔膈神经远端在上臂的位置比:左侧(38.60±13.10)%,右侧(52.40±7.90)%.经锁骨上切口引出膈神经远端在上臂的位置比:左侧(25.90±11.50)%,右侧(39.00±6.90)%.切口内缘至胸膜顶处膈神经长度(d)与胸膜顶至膈肌顶长度(f)的比值:第三肋间左侧(0.84±0.23),右侧(0.96±0.15);第四肋间左侧(1.02±0.21),右侧(1.08±0.17).切口内缘至膈神经入肌点长度(e)与胸膜顶至膈肌顶长度(f)的比值:第三肋间左侧(0.66±0.15),右侧(0.60±0.21);第四肋间左侧(0.55±0.04),右侧(0.44±0.05).17例臂丛神经根性损伤患者,经胸腔镜辅助直视下经胸切取全长膈神经移位桥接同侧肌皮神经,术后患者均未出现并发症,肱二头肌肌力恢复(肌力M2～M4).结论 膈神经在胸腔内的解剖特点适合进行经胸全长游离.胸腔镜辅助直视下经胸切取全长膈神经移位操作简单,安全性高,特殊设备要求低,可作为常规手术开展.

Abstract：

Objective To study the anatomic relationship of the thoracic phrenic nerve and provide anatomic basis for harvesting whole length phrenic nerve under direct vision using thoracoscope in the treatment of brachial plexus root injuries. Methods The anatomy of thoracic phrenic nerve and its surrounding tissues were observed on 20 sides of 10 adult cadavers which were embalmed by 10% formalin. Video-assisted thoracoscopic transthoracic phrenic nerve harvesting was carried out in the surgical treatment of 17 cases of brachial plexus injuries. The results in these cases were summarized. Results If the cutting end of phrenic nerve was pulled out of the second intercostal space at the anterior axillary line,the ratio of its location in the upper arm was (38.60±13.10)% on the left side and (52.40±7.90)% on the right side. If the cutting end was pulled out of the thoracic outlet,the location ratio in the upper arm was (25.90±11.50)% on the left side and (39.00±6.90)% on the right side. The ratio of phrenic nerve between d (length from medial edge of the incision to the pleural top) and f (length from pleural top to the top of diaphragm) was (0.84±0.23) on the left and (0.96±0.15) on the right at third intercostal space,(1.02±0.21) on the left and (1.08±0.17) on the right at the fourth intercostals space. The ratio of phrenic nerve between e (length from medial edge of the incision to the insertion of diaphragm) and f (length from pleural top to the top of diaphragm) was (0.66±0.15) on the left and (0.60±0.21) on the right at third intercostal space,(0.55±0.04) on the left and (0.44±0.05) on the right at the fourth intercostals space. Endoscopic-assisted transthoracic phrenic nerve harvesting in 17 cases of brachial plexus root injuries obtained full length of the phrenic nerve that could be directly coapted to the muscle branch of the musculocutaneous nerve. No complications were noted.The strength of the biceps underwent good recovery,which was M2 to M4. Conclusion The phrenic nerve in the thoracic cavity is suitable for full-length dissection based on the anatomical characteristics. Endoscope-assisted transthoracic phrenic nerve harvesting is a simple and safe surgery with low requirement of special equipment,and can be carried out as a routine surgery.     

同侧颈7神经根移位治疗臂丛上千根性撕脱伤的实验研究

目的 实验性比较同侧C7神经根全根移位与其他3种方法治疗臂丛上千根性撕脱伤的疗效.方法 120只SD大鼠建立上千根性撕脱伤模型后随机等分为4组,每组30只.(1)A组:同侧C7移位至上千+副神经至肩胛上神经;(2)B组:Oberlin手术(尺神经一束移位至肱二头肌支)+副神经至肩胛上神经+桡神经肱三头肌长头支至腋神经前支;(3)C组:膈神经移位至上千前股+副神经至肩胛上神经+颈丛运动支至上千后股;(4)D组:膈神经移位至上千前股+副神经至肩胛上神经,不作腋神经修复.术后3、6和12周每组取10只大鼠作Ochiai评分、Barth足错步试验、Terzis梳头试验及神经再生指标的榆测.结果 术后3周,A组3项行为学检测指标与3个对照组差异无统计学意义(P>0.017),腋神经电生理指标均显著优于3个对照组,其余各项腋神经及三角肌组织学指标均显著优于C组和D组,但与B组比较差异无统计学意义.A组除肌皮神经再生有髓神经纤维通过率显著优于C组外,其余肌皮神经及肱二头肌的电牛理与组织学检测指标与3个对照组比较差异无统计学意义.12周时,A组各项行为学观察、几乎全部腋神经和三角肌的电生理与组织学检测以及部分肌皮神经和肱二头肌的电生理与组织学检测指标均已显著优于3个对照组.结论 同侧C7神经根移位对治疗臂丛上千根性撕脱伤的实验性疗效显著.     

The use of thoracodorsal nerve transfer in restoration of irreparable C5 and C6 spinal nerve lesions.

There are only a few reports on the use of thoracodorsal nerve (TDN) transfer to the musculocutaneous or axillary nerves in cases of directly irreparable brachial plexus injuries. In this study, we analysed outcome and time-course of recovery in correlation with recipient nerves and type of nerve transfer (isolated or in combination with other collateral branches) for 27 patients with transfer to the musculocutaneous or axillary nerves. Using this nerve as donor, we obtained useful functional recovery in all 12 cases for the musculocutaneous nerve, and in 14 (93.3%) of 15 nerve transfers for the axillary nerve. Although, we found no significant statistical difference between analysed patients according to the percentage of recoveries and mean values, we established a better quality and shorter time of recovery for the musculocutaneous nerve. According to obtained results, we consider that transfer may be a valuable method in reconstruction after directly irreparable C5 and C6 spinal nerve lesions.     

Nerve transfer in brachial plexus traction injuries.

Brachial plexus palsy due to traction injury, especially spinal nerve-root avulsion, represents a severe handicap for the patient. Despite recent progress in diagnosis and microsurgical repair, the prognosis in such cases remains unfavorable. Nerve transfer is the only possibility for repair in cases of spinal nerve-root avulsion. This technique was analyzed in 37 patients with 64 reinnervation procedures of the musculocutaneous and/or axillary nerve using upper intercostal, spinal accessory, and regional nerves as donors. The most favorable results, with an 83.8% overall rate of useful functional recovery, were obtained in patients with upper brachial plexus palsy in which regional donor nerves, such as the medial pectoral, thoracodorsal, long thoracic, and subscapular nerves, had been used. The overall rates of recovery for the spinal accessory and upper intercostal nerves were 64.3% and 55.5%, respectively, which are significantly lower. The authors evaluate the results of nerve transfer and analyze different donor nerves as factors influencing the prognosis of surgical repair.     

神经移位修复臂丛神经根性撕脱伤

１９８７年７月～１９９４年６月，对２１例臂丛神经根性撕脱伤采用神经移位修复。其中复合移位４组神经（膈神经、副神经、颈丛运动支、肋间神经）者１例，３组（膈神经、副神经、颈丛运动支）者６例，２组（膈神经、副神经）者９例，１组（膈神经或颈丛运动支或肋间神经）者５例。术中发现臂丛神经变异１例，对４例合并锁骨下动脉损伤者，在神经移位的同时进行血管修复，促进患肢的血液循环，有利于神经的康复。随访到１９例，随访时间为８个月～６年２个月，优良率达７３．７％。认为，神经移位术是修复神经根性撕裂伤的常规方法，合并血管损伤者也应同时修复，对促进神经功能恢复有利     

Comparative clinic study on vascularized and nonvascularized full-length phrenic nerve transfer

In order to understand whether the vascularizing procedure has any clinical value in nerve transfer and grafting, we compared nonvascularized and vascularized full-length phrenic never transfers in patients with a brachial plexus injury. Full-length phrenic nerve transfer to the musculocutaneous nerve had been conducted by the technique of video-assisted thoracic surgery in 15 patients. Three kinds of procedures were carried out. The first involved retaining the initial point of the phrenic nerve and dissecting the full-length distal nerve. The second involved keeping the cervical segment and isolating the thoracic segment of the phrenic nerve. The last involved vascularized phrenic nerve transfer. All these phrenic nerves were sutured to musculocutaneous nerves. After 28-35 months, the results of electrophysiology and function of the biceps brachii muscle were compared. All three procedures had no significant differences and led to the same functional recovery of the biceps brachii muscle after at least 28 months of follow-up. In conclusion, the vascularizing procedure had little clinical value, not only in full-length phrenic nerve transfer, but also in nerve grafting irrespective of the length of the gap, when the recipient bed had normal vascularity.     

膈神经端侧吻合移位治疗肌皮神经损伤的实验研究

目的 研究膈神经端侧吻合移位至肌皮神经治疗臂丛神经撕脱伤的可行性.方法 取雄性SD大鼠51只,随机分成4组:A组,单侧全臂丛神经撕脱组;B组,膈神经端端吻合组;C组,膈神经端侧吻合组;D组,膈神经螺旋状端侧吻合组(B、C、D组膈神经均移植2.0 cm腓肠神经至肌皮神经).并于术后进行肢体功能、组织学和神经电生理检测.另取绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescent protein,GFP)转基因F344大鼠9只,通过荧光显微镜观察膈神经轴突再生情况.方果 各实验组术后手术侧肢体功能逐渐恢复,术后神经电生理和组织学检测表明,术后3个月,C、D组左侧肱二头肌肌张力恢复率和肌湿重恢复率,分别为B组的76.4%和86.3%、85.6%和87.7%,即端侧吻合组肱二头肌功能达到端端吻合组的80%以上,同时保留了膈肌的功能.荧光显微镜观察发现膈神经轴突通过端侧吻合口长入移植神经.方论 膈神经端侧吻合治疗臂丛神经损伤的手术方法是有效、可行的.     

Posterior Approach for Double Nerve Transfer for Restoration of Shoulder Function in Upper Brachial Plexus Palsy

Restoration of shoulder function is one of the most critical goals of treatment of brachial plexus injuries. Primary repair or nerve grafting of avulsion injuries of the upper brachial plexus in adults often leads to poor recovery. Nerve transfers have provided an alternative treatment with great potential for improved return of function. Many different nerves have been utilized as donor nerves for transfer to the suprascapular nerve and axillary nerve for return of shoulder function with variable results. As our knowledge of shoulder neuromuscular anatomy and physiology improves and our experience with nerve transfers increases, so evolve the specific transfer procedures. This article presents a technique and rationale for reconstructing shoulder function by transferring the distal spinal accessory nerve to the suprascapular nerve and the nerve branch to the medial head of the triceps to the axillary nerve, both through a posterior approach.     

Brachial plexus injuries: outcome following neurotization with intercostal nerve

OBJECT: Brachial plexus root avulsion injuries, which are devastating, usually result from high-speed accidents. Nerve transfer provides hope for successful treatment of this difficult set of injuries. Nevertheless, the controversies regarding indications, techniques, and outcome of the various available surgical procedures continue. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed in 51 patients (43 male and eight female patients) with brachial plexus injuries who underwent neurotization at the authors' institute between 1997 and 2003. Clinical, electrophysiological, and imaging data were used to identify the type and pattern of involvement of the various elements of the plexus. The mean duration of denervation was 6.4 months (range 2-24 months). Outcome was computed in terms of the overall improvement in power of the target muscle as well as the functional usefulness of such recovery. RESULTS: There were 50 supraclavicular injuries (25 preganglionic, eight postganglionic, and 17 mixed). One patient had an infraclavicular (posterior spinal cord) injury. Pan-brachial plexus injury with a flail upper limb was the most common pattern. Overall, 55 nerves were neurotized-33 musculocutaneous, 18 axillary, and two each for ulnar and radial nerves (47 single and four double neurotizations-by using intercostal nerve donors in the majority of cases. Adequate follow-up data were available in 36 patients (38 nerves) and these were used for the analysis of outcome. Overall, 58.3% of patients had improvement, and of these 62% achieved useful recovery. This accounted for 36% of overall useful recovery. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that regardless of age, sex, mode and pattern of injury, and recipient nerve, the duration of denervation showed a trend toward significance that correlated with overall (but not useful) improvement. The critical duration of denervation was 5.5 months. CONCLUSIONS: Neurotization for brachial plexus root avulsion injuries is a viable option. Early detection and intervention (within 5.5 months) leads to a better overall recovery.     

Restoration of upper arm function in traction injuries to the brachial plexus

Summary. Summary.   Background: Restoration of upper arm function presents the main priority in nerve repair of brachial plexus traction injuries. The results are predominantly influenced by the level and extent of injury, and the type of surgical procedure. The purpose of this study is to evaluate influence of these factors on final outcome.   Methods: Study included 91 surgically treated patients, including 71 patients with avulsions of one or more spinal nerve roots and 20 with peripheral traction injuries. We performed 120 nerve transfers, 25 nerve graftings and 29 neurolyses on different nerve elements depending on the type of nerve damage. Analysis of motor recovery for elbow flexion and arm abduction, isolated or in combination, was done.   Findings: Recovery of elbow flexion was obtained in 75% nerve transfers, and in 68,7% nerve graftings in peripheral traction injuries. Recovery of arm abduction was obtained in 78,5% nerve transfers, and in 44,4% nerve graftings in peripheral traction injuries. Neurolysis was successful in all cases. Generally, the quality of recovery was better for the musculocutaneous nerve. Useful global upper arm function was obtained in 49,3% of patients with avulsion of spinal nerve roots, and in 55% of patients with peripheral traction injuries.   Interpretation: Regarding upper arm function the prognosis of surgically treated patients with traction injuries to the brachial plexus is generally similar in cases with central or peripheral level of injury. However, nerve transfers of collateral branches seem to be superior to nerve grafting and may be another possibility for repair in cases with extensive nerve gaps.     

Pulmonary and biceps function after intercostal and phrenic nerve transfer for brachial plexus injuries

This pseudo-randomized study was performed to compare the pulmonary function and biceps recovery after intercostal (19 cases) and phrenic (17 cases) nerve transfer to the musculocutaneous nerve for brachial plexus injury patients with nerve root avulsions. Pulmonary function was assessed pre-operatively and postoperatively by measuring the forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in 1 second, vital capacity, and tidal volume. Motor recovery of biceps was serially recorded. Our results revealed that pulmonary function in the phrenic nerve transfer group was still significantly reduced 1 year after surgery. In the intercostal nerve transfer group, pulmonary function was normal after 3 months. Motor recovery of biceps in the intercostal nerve group was significantly earlier than that in phrenic nerve group. We conclude that pulmonary and biceps functions are better after intercostal nerve transfer than after phrenic nerve transfer in the short term at least.     

Surgical treatment of brachial plexus traction injuries in children,excluding obstetric palsy

Traumatic brachial plexus injuries in children, excluding birth palsy, are seldom reported. In this study, we report on 11 cases operated upon between 1995-1998, and followed for at least 30 months. All patients were males with an average age of 11 years (range, 3-16 years). The denervation time averaged 3.8 months (range, 1-8 months). Eight patients had two or more root avulsions; two had additional severe infraclavicular injuries. In total, 6 grafting and 25 extraplexal neurotization procedures were used. Donor nerves included the intercostal nerves, phrenic nerve, spinal accessory nerve, and contralateral C7 root. Elbow flexion was restored in all but 2 cases. Shoulder abduction varied from 30-90 degrees, according to the method of reconstruction. Triceps recovered in 2 cases and finger and wrist extensors in 1 case. Wrist and finger flexion was obtained in 1 case. Sensory recovery in the palm reached S2/S2+. Harvesting the phrenic nerve and the contralateral C7 root resulted in no residual morbidity. Compared to adults, children have a higher incidence of root avulsion, no deafferentiation pain, a higher incidence of associated skeletal injuries, and the same recovery rate of elbow and shoulder functions following plexus reconstruction, but recovery is faster. Given the frequency of root avulsions, neurotization is often required.