College student drinking: perception of the norm and behavioral intentions

Social norm campaigns assume that college students desire to increase their drinking, and may eventually do so, to match inflated perceptions of peer drinking. We assessed 171 college students on self-reported drinking, desired drinking and perception of peer drinking at baseline, and assessed 139 of those students one month later. Participants who believed their peers drank more than they were hypothesized to desire to increase their alcohol consumption to match the perceived norm. This hypothesis was not supported; however, 91% of participants believed their peers drank more than themselves. It was also hypothesized that participants who wished to drink more would drink more in the future. Participants who desired to increase their drinking did not report a significant change in drinking behavior one month later, but participants who initially desired to maintain or decrease their drinking reported significant decreases across the following month. College student overestimation of peer drinking and the college environment are discussed. Social norm campaigns should consider behavioral intentions, and the underlying assumptions of these campaigns should be further tested.     

Mood and drinking: a naturalistic diary study of alcohol, coffee and tea

Understanding the pattern of associations between mood and consumption of alcohol, coffee and tea may provide information about the factors governing beverage drinking. The associations between mood and the consumption of alcohol, coffee and tea during everyday life were assessed. A naturalistic study was carried out with 18 male and 31 female volunteers from two working groups (psychiatric nursing and school teaching). Participants completed daily records of drink consumption, together with ratings of anxious and positive moods for 8 weeks. Potential moderators of associations were self-reported drinking to cope, high perceived job demands and social support at work. Day-by-day associations were analysed using Spearman correlations. There were substantial individual differences in associations between mood and daily alcohol, coffee and tea consumption. Overall, alcohol intake was associated with high positive and low anxious mood. This effect was not present among participants with high drinking to cope ratings. Coffee and tea drinking were not consistently related to mood across the entire sample. However, job demands influenced the association between coffee consumption and anxious mood in men, and those who experienced high job demands drank more coffee on days on which they felt anxious. In contrast, women but not men who enjoyed high social support at work felt more relaxed on days on which they drank more tea. These results indicate that people vary widely in the extent to which mood is related to the drinking of alcohol, coffee and tea. The strength of associations is influenced by gender, motivational factors, and by stress and coping resources. Received: 30 April 1998/Final version: 22 June 1998     

College student protective strategies and drinking consequences

OBJECTIVE: This study explored the relationships between college student gender, alcohol use, protective strategies and harmful drinking consequences. METHOD: A derivation sample (N = 3,851; 54% women) and a replication sample (N = 4,151; 55% women) of undergraduate students completed the Campus Alcohol Survey (CAS) in classroom settings. RESULTS: Although women drank less than men and were less likely to experience harmful consequences, they were more likely to use protective strategies. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that students who consumed at least six drinks when they partied--especially men-were less likely to experience more common consequences (e.g., poor academic performance, property damage, unconsciousness, riding in a vehicle with others who have been drinking) if they engaged in self-protective strategies. Such strategies also helped students who exceeded the median number of drinks to moderate the effect of drinking on less common consequences (e.g., vehicular accidents, class failure, conflicts with authorities). CONCLUSIONS: These findings add to the growing literature on contextual events that protect students from harm while drinking.     

One too many: predicting future alcohol consumption following heavy drinking

Adult social drinkers used handheld computers to monitor alcohol intake as well as the precursors and consequences of drinking over a 2-week period. The within-person relationship between mood and amount of alcohol consumed was examined, as well as the role of individual differences. When individuals made internal attributions for their greater than average consumption, they were in a more negative mood after drinking. Individuals who experienced a negative mood after drinking consumed more subsequently. This dysregulatory process may help explain the progression from social drinking to more problematic drinking; indeed, the relationship between mood and alcohol intake was stronger for heavier drinkers. Likewise, gender and trait temptation and restriction moderated this process. The results are consistent with the Limit Violation Effect model (R. L. Collins, 1993) of mood and regulation of alcohol intake.     

Reproducibility of Two Approaches for Assessing Alcohol Consumption Among Older Adults

Objectives. In this study, we hypothesized that there is greater disclosure in self reports of alcohol intake when details of quantity-frequency measures of alcohol consumption are ascertained in the context of a general health and life style questionnaire as compared to a directed interview on usual drinking habits. Methods. Data are from the 1993 to 1994 follow-up of the Washington County cohort of men and women 65 years and older, participating in the Cardiovascular Health Study. A total of 918 subjects completed a questionnaire evaluation of their usual alcohol consumption by two separate approaches: (1) alcohol intake was derived from responses to questions contained within a medical and personal history questionnaire; (2) the same questions were asked in the context of a specific alcohol use in older adults questionnaire. Results. The mean alcohol intake for the entire cohort, and for drinkers alone were almost identical when assessed by either questionnaire, with high correlation between the two estimates, irrespective of beverage type. There was 89% agreement classifying drinkers versus nondrinkers by both approaches, with the strength of the agreement good ( &#115 = 0.76). This agreement became moderate if drinkers were further categorized into three levels of alcohol intake. Predictors of the differences in alcohol intake between the two questionnaires were explored by multiple regression. Differences were largest for those who stated that the reason they drank was because they were no longer working, and for those drinking on average more than 24 g (greater than approximately 2 drinks) of alcohol daily. Discussion. Although agreement between the two approaches was generally comparable, some findings may indicate that older adults who are problem drinkers or drink heavily report lower consumption patterns when administered a more directed questionnaire specifically focusing on drinking behavior. These findings have implications in the design of studies measuring alcohol consumption among elderly persons with a relatively low background alcohol intake.     

A laboratory-based investigation of relations among video lottery terminal (VLT) play,negative mood,and alcohol consumption in regular VLT players

Thirty regular video lottery terminal (VLT) players were randomly assigned to 90 min of VLT play or a control activity (viewing a movie) to examine the impact of VLT play on alcohol use. Ratings of dysphoric mood were taken at baseline, midactivity, and postactivity. Alcoholic and nonalcoholic control beverages were available throughout. As hypothesized, those in the VLT condition were more likely to consume alcoholic than nonalcoholic control beverages (i.e., 73% drank alcohol and 20% drank control beverages), whereas no such preference for alcohol was observed in the movie control condition (i.e., 40% drank alcohol and 47% drank control beverages). Consistentwith predictions derived from Steele and Josephs' [J. Abnorm. Psychol. 97 (1988) 196; Am. Psychol. 45 (1990) 921.] attention allocation model, VLT condition participants who drank alcohol showed increases in dysphoric effect over the course of testing. No such changes in negative mood were observed in VLT participants who did not consume alcohol or in movie control participants regardless of whether they drank alcohol. An observed temporal pattern of greater drinking during the early phase of VLT play indicated that the relation between alcohol use and dysphoric affect among VLT condition participants could not readily be explained by drinking to relieve dysphoria induced by VLT losses. Clinical and policy implications are discussed.     

Self-determination,perceived approval,and drinking: Differences between Asian Americans and Whites

The present research assessed racial differences in the associations among controlled orientation, injunctive norms, and increased drinking by White and Asian American college students. Previous research has noted racial differences in drinking, but reasons have not been considered in the context of individual differences in self-determination or responses to social influences. The authors evaluated perceived parental and peer injunctive norms as mediators of the relationship between controlled orientation and number of drinks consumed per week. The association between controlled orientation and drinking was further expected to be moderated by race. This study consisted of 534 White and 198 Asian American participants who had at least one heavy drinking episode in the month prior to assessment. Participants completed self-report measures assessing self-determination, perceived parental/peer injunctive norms, and drinking. Results indicated that peer injunctive norms served as a mediator between controlled orientation and greater number of drinks consumed per week for Whites only. Although Asian Americans were significantly higher in controlled orientation than Whites, they drank less and perceived their peers to be less approving of drinking. In contrast, Whites who were high in controlled orientation viewed their friends as being significantly more approving of alcohol and consumed significantly more drinks per week. Results provide unique considerations for understanding cultural differences in drinking among White and Asian American young adults.     

A group Motivational Interviewing intervention reduces drinking and alcohol-related negative consequences in adjudicated college women

College students who violate campus alcohol policies (adjudicated students) are at high risk for experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences and for undermining campus life. Further, college women may be especially at-risk due to differential intoxication effects and sexual consequences experienced mainly by female students. Research on interventions for adjudicated students, especially adjudicated females, has been limited. One hundred and fifteen college women who received a sanction for violating campus alcohol policies participated in the study. The two-hour group intervention focused on female-specific reasons for drinking and included decisional balance, goal setting and other exercises. Participants completed follow-up surveys for 12 weeks following the intervention and answered questions regarding alcohol consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences. Findings support the use of an MI-based intervention to reduce both alcohol consumption and consequences among adjudicated females. Specifically, alcohol use was reduced by 29.9% and negative consequences were reduced by 35.87% from pre-intervention to 3-month follow up. Further, the intervention appeared to successfully initiate change in the heaviest drinkers, as women who drank at risky levels reduced alcohol consumption to a greater extent than women who drank at moderate levels.     

Normal drinkers' alcohol consumption as a function of conflicting motives induced by intellectual performance stress

Research on the determinants of human alcohol consumption suggests that the behavioral demands of stressful drinking contexts, in relation to persons' expectations of alcohol's effects, may produce variations in drinking patterns across qualitatively different situations, at least in normal drinkers. To investigate the extent to which the alcohol consumption of normal drinkers is determined by levels of stress and by their concerns to accommodate conflicting situational demands, 40 males were given free access to alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages both before and after exposure to either high or low levels of an intellectual performance stressor, which alcohol is commonly believed to disrupt. Subjects' initial knowledge of the post-task drinking opportunity (informed or uninformed) was also manipulated to determine if this knowledge facilitated variations in subjects' consumption patterns to accommodate the intellectual performance demands. Results showed that all high stress subjects drank more alcohol during both drinking periods than all low stress subjects, and all informed subjects drank less alcohol during the pre-task drinking period and more alcohol during post-task drinking period than all uninformed subjects. These combined findings suggest that while normal drinkers may be somewhat sensitive to situational demands in making their decisions to consume alcohol, they also appear to be responsive to the general level of stress induced by a particular drinking situation.     

Alcohol Expectancies,Values, and Drinking of Irish and U.S. Collegians

Positive and negative alcohol expectancies, values, and their relationship to amount and severity of drinking were examined for Irish and American college students. All Irish seemed to have softer, more aesthetic values than Americans, especially males. Irish college women appeared especially dissatisfied with the conventional roles thrust upon them, and they used alcohol to relieve inhibitions, especially sexual ones. American women also used alcohol as a tranquilizer and for release of inhibitions. While Irish males also seemed to drink for rebellious reasons, all males had less concern about social censure and rejection because of drinking than did females.

Cross-cultural studies have provided an interesting approach to the question of what needs are satisfied by alcohol, especially by studying those cultures where the consumption of alcohol is particularly high or low. In this respect, Ireland has often been singled out for study because, in spite of the fact that Irish overall consumption is not greater than many other European countries, at the same time this country appears to contain a higher rate of both abstainers and alcoholics (O'Connor, 1978). Recent approaches to the study of alcohol have focused on the issue of needs by inquiring about the positive and negative expectations that drinkers entertain regarding the consequences of their alcohol sumption (Goldman, Brown, and Christiansen, 1986). Christiansen and Teahan (1986) have recently applied this approach to a study of Irish and U.S. high school students, and Teahan (1986) has used a similar method with Irish and North American alcoholics. In the present study, the positive and negative expectations from alcohol consumption by Irish and American college students were examined, and an attempt was made to relate these, as well as the value structure of these collegians, to their reported drinking behavior.     

Pregnancy and alcohol: occasional, light drinking may be safe

Many pregnant women drink varying quantities of alcohol, although several guidelines recommend total abstinence. What is known of the dangers of alcohol for the outcome of pregnancy and for the unborn child? To answer this question, we conducted a review of the literature using the standard Prescrire methodology. Fetal alcohol syndrome, which combines facial dysmorphism, growth retardation and intellectual disability, occurs in about 5% of children who are regularly exposed to at least five standard units per day (about 50 g of alcohol per day). Four studies have explored the link between heavy maternal alcohol use over a short period and the risk of cognitive impairment in the child. The results were inconclusive, however, and the authors failed to take concomitant chronic alcohol consumption into account. A methodologically sound study showed an increase in neurological abnormalities (seizures and epilepsy) when the mother drank heavily during short periods between the 11th and 16th weeks of pregnancy. There is a risk of cognitive and behavioural problems in children whose mothers regularly drank more than 2 standard units per day. Studies involving a total of about 150 000 pregnancies sought a link between low-level alcohol consumption and abnormal pregnancy outcomes. Very few showed a statistically significant link, and the results are undermined by the failure to take other risk factors into account. Weekly consumption of 5 standard units or more during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of cryptorchidism. Studies in a total of 57 000 pregnancies showed no effect of minimal alcohol consumption on the risk of malformations. A study of 1000 pregnancies showed a statistically significant risk of major malformations, but there were several apparent biases. A link between infant mortality and alcohol consumption during pregnancy was examined in large cohort studies. Consumption of at least 4 standard units per week increased the risk of early neonatal death. Smoking further increased the risk. Daily alcohol consumption should be avoided during pregnancy. A face-to-face interview remains the best way of detecting at-risk drinking during pregnancy. Specific questionnaires (T-ACE and Tweak) can also be helpful. Women often spontaneously cut down on their drinking in early pregnancy. A clinical trial showed that women with at-risk drinking were more likely to reduce their consumption if they were informed of the risks for their pregnancy and their unborn child on several occasions than if they were simply given an information leaflet. In practice, women must be informed of the risks of alcohol consumption during pregnancy, but this must be done tactfully. The risks of minimal alcohol consumption should not be overstated.     

Gender and dating relationship status moderate the association between alcohol use and sex-related alcohol expectancies

Young adulthood can be a period where the development of intimacy and dating relationships coincide with alcohol experimentation. The current study was designed to examine how dating relationship status is associated with drinking behavior. Additionally, although the relationship between sex-related alcohol expectancies and drinking has been established, the current study extends this research by investigating how gender and dating relationship status moderate the association between these expectancies and drinking behavior. A sample of 1932 college students who were single and not actively dating, single and actively dating, or in a steady relationship were included in the analyses. Results revealed that males and females who were actively dating drank significantly more drinks per week than those not dating and those in a relationship. In addition, the association between sex-related alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior was moderated by gender and relationship status. Men with high sex-related alcohol expectancies appeared to be at equal similar risk for greater drinking regardless of relationship status. However, there appears to be unique drinking risk for actively dating women with high sex-related alcohol expectancies.     

The differential impact of relational health on alcohol consumption and consequences in first year college women

The Relational Health Indices (RHI) is a relatively new measure that assesses the strength of relationships. It has been found that relational health has a protective factor for women, such that it enhances positive experiences and limits negative ones. The current study is the first to use the RHI to examine the effect of relational health on alcohol consumption and alcohol consequences. First year college women were given questionnaires assessing relational health, drinking motives, and alcohol use in their first few months at a mid-sized, private university. Due to the social nature of college settings, it was predicted that relational health would moderate the relationship between motives and alcohol consumption. Further, due to the protective factor of relational health, it was predicted that relational health would attenuate the relationship between drinking and negative consequences. These hypotheses were supported. Relational health, moderated the relationship between both social and coping drinking motives and drinking, such that women with strong relational health towards their peers and community who also had high social and coping motives, drank more than those with weaker relationships. Paradoxically, relational health also moderated the relationship between drinking and consequences such that heavy drinking women with strong relational health experienced fewer negative consequences than women with weaker relational health. Results indicate that although relational health is associated with an increase in alcohol consumption, it may also serve as a protective factor for alcohol-related negative consequences. Future research and interventions may seek to de-link the relational health-drinking connection in the college student environment.     

United States male students who heavily consume alcohol in Mexico are at greater risk of travelers' diarrhea than their female counterparts

BACKGROUND: The relationship between alcohol consumption and travelers' diarrhea has not been well studied. METHODS: A cohort of US college students (n=171), who attended 2001 or 2002 summer educational sessions in Guadalajara, Mexico, were followed prospectively to examine the frequency of alcohol consumption and the development of travelers' diarrhea. RESULTS: More male students reported consuming >5 drinks/day of drinking while in Mexico compared to female students (p <.001). Males who consumed >5 drinks/day of drinking while in Mexico were more likely to develop diarrhea than their female counterparts who drank the same amount (79% vs. 46%; p=.035). No association was found between the development of travelers' diarrhea and the consumption of fewer than 5 drinks per day in Mexico. Non-drinkers accounted for only 8% of the population and had a relatively high attack rate of diarrhea (69%). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that males who drink heavily are at high risk for developing travelers' diarrhea and may be a group of people to target for education about the moderation of use of alcohol while traveling. Nondrinkers also deserve further study in larger numbers to confirm an apparently high attack rate of diarrhea and to explore what risk factors might be involved.     

Reactivity to conspicuousness and alcohol use among college students: the moderating effect of alcohol expectancies

The analysis of self-report data from 147 college undergraduates suggested that alcohol expectancies moderate the effect of a dispositional susceptibility to embarrassment elicited by undesired conspicuousness [center-of-attention-induced embarrassability (CAE)] on drinking behavior. Individuals unlikely to experience embarrassment when they engage in behaviors that make them stand out in a crowd, a common occurrence when one drinks to excess, drank heavily if they expected alcohol to make them more assertive socially. Students with similar beliefs about the effects of alcohol on social interaction who were high in CAE consumed substantially less alcohol than the latter individuals. Their overall levels of drinking were more comparable to those of the low-expectancy participants, suggesting that the disdain for conspicuousness characteristic of people with a susceptibility to CAE may counteract the desire for social disinhibition that often motivates alcohol consumption.     

Psychosocial, cultural and genetic influences on alcohol use in Asian American youth

OBJECTIVE: Environmental and cultural factors, as well as a genetic variant of the aldehyde dehydrogenase gene (the ALDH2*2 allele) have been identified as correlates of alcohol use among Asian Americans. However, concurrent examination of these variables has been rare. The present study assessed parental alcohol use, acculturation and ALDH2 gene status in relation to lifetime, current and heavy episodic drinking among Chinese and Korean American undergraduates. METHOD: Participants (N = 428, 51% women; 52% Chinese American, age 18-19 years) were first-year college students in a longitudinal study of substance use initiation and progression. Data were collected via structured interview and self-report, and participants provided a blood sample for genotyping at the ALDH2 locus. RESULTS: Gender, parental alcohol use and acculturation significantly predicted drinking behavior. However, none of the hypothesized moderating relationships were significant. In contrast with previous studies, ALDH2 gene status was not associated with alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that although the variables examined influence alcohol use, moderating effects were not observed in the present sample of Asian American college students. Findings further suggest that the established association of ALDH2 status and drinking behavior in Asians may not be evident in late adolescence. It is possible that ALDH2 status is associated with alcohol consumption only following initiation and increased drinking experience.     

Alcohol consumption among high school students in Barcelona, Spain

OBJECTIVE: Since adolescents are a high-risk group for alcohol-related problems, this study was undertaken to gain insight into the prevalence of alcohol consumption among this population. METHOD: This study was carried out in the city of Barcelona using an anonymous questionnaire which included information about frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption. The sample population was composed of all the students from 13 to 20 years old who were attending high school during 1992-93 (n = 1,137) and 1994-95 (n = 1,094). The amount of alcohol consumption was calculated in alcohol units per week for 4 groups of different beverages (beer, wine, spirits and aperitifs) and also in grams per day. RESULTS: Lifetime prevalence of alcohol consumption was 92.5% in 1992-93 and 77.0% in 1994-95. Students who drank more frequently were older and male. In 1992-93, 8% of female students had an absolute alcohol intake beyond 24 g per day (risk consumption), which was the same percentage in 1994-95. Male students had a higher intake, although risk consumption rate (more than 40 g per day) was similar to that of females: 9% and 7.4% in 1992-93 and 1994-95, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: While changes in the prevalence of drinking are encouraging, the results of this study also show an increase in the quantity of alcohol consumed.     

Drinkers and their driving: compliance with drinking-driving legislation in four Australian states.

This study replicates work in Norway and the United States in investigating the extent to which Australian drivers attempt to comply with drinking-driving legislation. In a four-state survey of 1,133 drinkers, it was found that people were aware of the need to control their alcohol input before driving, and derived estimates of blood alcohol after a recent away-from-home drinking occasion demonstrated that the amount people drank was influenced by whether or not they were driving. Drivers reported drinking less than nondrivers and were also those who usually consumed less alcohol. These findings were also true of people with different levels of normal consumption. Although these results are encouraging, it is suggested that there is need for further modification of sanctions, and that the community needs more information about the alcohol content of drinks and drink sizes if people are to moderate effectively their drinking before driving.     

Does one day of drinking matter? 21st birthday drinking predicts subsequent drinking and consequences

ObjectiveThere has been ample research on college student risks and consequences related to 21st Birthday Drinking. To date, no studies we are aware of have examined how 21st birthday drinking impacts subsequent drinking and related consequences. This study evaluates the effect of a single night of drinking on peak drinking, heavy drinking, and negative consequences over 12 months following the event. Furthermore, we examine if typical drinking behavior prior to 21st birthday moderates the relationship between the event drinking and subsequent use.MethodParticipants included 599 college students (46% male) who intended to consume at least five/four drinks (men/women respectively) on their 21st birthday. Screening and baseline assessments were completed approximately four weeks before turning 21. A follow-up assessment was completed approximately one week after students' birthdays and every 3 months for one year thereafter.ResultsThose who drank more on their 21st birthday, also reported higher peak consumption, increased likelihood of consequences, and increased number of consequences throughout the year. Additionally, baseline peak drinking moderated the relationship such that those who drank less at peak occasion prior to turning 21 showed the strongest effects of 21st BD drinking on subsequent consumption.Conclusions21st BD drinking could impact subsequent choices and problems related to alcohol. Interventions are warranted and implications discussed.