RORα高表达抑制人胃癌MGC803细胞上皮-间质转化

目的在构建RORα高表达人胃癌MGC803细胞的基础上,观察RORα高表达对MGC803细胞上皮-间质转化(epithelialmesenchymal transformation,EMT)的影响。方法采用相差显微镜观察RORα高表达对MGC803细胞形态的影响。RT-PCR、Western blot、免疫荧光与免疫组化法检测EMT相关分子表达。裸鼠实验检测RORα高表达对移植瘤生长的影响。结果相差显微镜显示,RORα高表达细胞较MGC803细胞大小较一致,呈圆形或椭圆形,异型性降低。Western blot检测结果显示,RORα高表达可明显下调MGC803细胞Snail蛋白表达(P0.05)。RT-PCR与Western blot检测结果显示,RORα高表达可下调vimentin和上调E-cadherin m RNA与蛋白表达。免疫荧光检测结果显示,RORα高表达组细胞Snail与vimentin阳性信号表达较对照组明显减弱,而E-cadherin阳性信号显著增强。RORα高表达组移植瘤较对照组生长减慢(P0.05),移植瘤体重较对照组明显降低,抑瘤率为26.55%(P0.05)。RORα高表达组较对照组癌细胞异型性降低。RORα高表达组较对照组的Ki-67、CD34与vimentin阳性表达均明显降低,而E-cadherin阳性表达明显增强。结论 RORα高表达可体内外抑制人胃癌细胞EMT。     

下调CDH17基因对那可丁耐药性人胃癌细胞裸鼠移植瘤模型的影响

研究下调CDH17基因对那可丁耐药的人胃癌MGC-803细胞裸鼠移植瘤模型的影响,为临床上寻求治疗胃癌新方案提供理论依据。以人胃癌MGC-803细胞作为研究材料,建立该细胞的裸鼠移植瘤模型。同时,用HE染色法观察瘤体组织病理学形态。结果显示,RT-PCR和Western blotting实验中siCDH17慢病毒对胃癌MGC-803细胞中CDH17的转录水平和蛋白质表达水平均具有干扰效果(P<0.05)。随后将siCDH17慢病毒干扰的人胃癌MGC-803细胞以及对照细胞进行裸鼠皮下移植瘤实验。移植后第6天各组均见皮下肿瘤结块,采用那可丁药物处理并实时检测肿瘤生长情况。结果发现,siCDH17组肿瘤体积和质量明显小于对照组和siNC组(P<0.05)。且HE染色也发现与对照组比较,siCDH17组的瘤体肿瘤细胞生长受到抑制。因此,下调CDH17基因可以增加胃癌MGC-803细胞对那可丁的敏感性,抑制胃癌MGC-803细胞的生长,最终阻滞裸鼠移植瘤的生长。     

Decorin基因转染对人胃癌裸鼠移植瘤生长的影响

目的:探讨核心蛋白聚糖(DCN)对人胃癌细胞SGC-7901裸鼠移植瘤生长的影响及可能的机制。方法:构建裸鼠胃癌移植瘤模型,将重组质粒pEGFP-N1-DCN注入肿瘤中央及基底部,以空质粒组和生理盐水组作为对照,测量肿瘤体积和质量的变化,RT-PCR及Western blot法检测DCN的表达,Western blot法检测转化生长因子-β1(TGF-β1)和基质金属蛋白酶-9(MMP-9)的表达,免疫组织化学染色方法检测血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的表达。结果:裸鼠胃癌移植瘤模型构建成功,与对照组比较,重组质粒组肿瘤生长速度减慢,肿瘤体积和质量明显变小(P<0.05);RT-PCR显示重组质粒组DCN表达增强(P<0.05),Western blot结果显示重组质粒组有融合蛋白的表达,重组质粒组TGF-β1及MMP-9蛋白表达均降低(P<0.05);免疫组化显示重组质粒组VEGF表达降低(P<0.05)。结论:DCN基因可以抑制裸鼠移植瘤生长,其机制可能与转化生长因子-β1及基质金属蛋白酶-9蛋白的表达降低和肿瘤新生血管形成抑制有关。     

荧光标记肿瘤转移体内模型的建立

目的 建立一种带荧光标记的肿瘤转移模型并探讨其应用价值.方法 人胃癌MGC-803细胞和小鼠宫颈癌U14细胞进行体外传代培养,转染pEGFP-N1质粒,24h检测转染效率,用无限稀释法筛选稳定表达绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)的单克隆细胞株MGC-803-GFP和U14-GFP.分别体内移植于BALB/c-nn裸鼠和C57BL/6J小鼠,观察成瘤潜伏期,绘制体内生长曲线,利用活体荧光成像系统活体连续观察GFP在体内的表达,观察肺部和淋巴结的转移情况,计算转移率.免疫组织化学检测与转移相关的分子CD44和E-cadherin在移植瘤中的表达.结果 MGC-803细胞和U14细胞pEGFP-N1转染24 h后的转染效率分别为30%和60%.获得了GFP(+)的单克隆MGC-803-GFP细胞株和U14-GFP细胞株.MGC-803-GFP在BALB/c-nu裸鼠和U14-GFP在C57BL/6J小鼠移植成瘤的潜伏期分别是3～5 d和2～4 d,成瘤率均为100%.利用活体荧光成像系统连续观察,可以清楚直观地观察表达GFP的MGC-803-GFP移植瘤在体内的生长,接种后第60天处死全部荷瘤鼠,解剖后仅有1只可见同侧腋窝下淋巴结的转移.接种U14-GFP后,分别在第28、37和52天观察了荷瘤小鼠肿瘤转移的发展过程.在U14-GFP原发瘤体积达到≥5 cm3时,肺部和淋巴结转移率分别为67%和100%.在MGC-803-GFP和U14-GFP的移植瘤中都可以检测到CD44的表达,而无E-cadherin的表达.结论 成功建立了表达绿色荧光蛋白单克隆细胞株MGC-803-GFP和U14-GFP,体内移植建立了荧光标记的肿瘤转移模型.该模型可用于可视化肿瘤体内的研究.     

NFATc1对裸鼠上皮性卵巢癌移植瘤脉管生成的影响

 目的: 探讨胞浆活化T细胞核因子1(nuclear factor of activated T-cells, cytplasmic 1, NFATc1)对人卵巢癌SKOV3细胞裸鼠移植瘤生长和肿瘤脉管生成的影响及其可能机制。方法: NFATc1 siRNA转染人上皮性卵巢癌细胞株SKOV3,免疫荧光及RT-PCR测量转染效率和基因抑制率,选取效率最高的序列建立裸鼠皮下移植瘤模型, 测量各组裸鼠肿瘤体积,观察NFATc1 siRNA的体内抗肿瘤作用。免疫组织化学检测各组肿瘤组织NFATc1的表达情况,并使用细胞角蛋白染色标记上皮性来源,CD34标记微血管,podoplanin标记微淋巴管。分别计算各组微血管及微淋巴管密度并进行统计学分析。应用RT-PCR及Western blot检测各组移植瘤组织NFATc1、CXC趋化因子受体2(CXCR2)、成纤维细胞生长因子2(FGF-2)及血小板源性生长因子BB(PDGF-BB)的mRNA及蛋白表达水平。结果: 3条特异性序列均可显著降低NFATc1的表达水平,以siRNA-1169最佳。NFATc1在空白组及阴性对照组瘤组织高表达。干扰组抑瘤率为57.08%,且重量和体积均低于2个对照组。空白组和阴性对照组的微血管密度和微淋巴管密度明显高于干扰组。对照组比较,NFATc1 siRNA可以在mRNA水平上明显抑制NFATC1、CXCR2、FGF-2和PDGF-BB的转录。Western blot各组细胞在相应位置出现NFATc1、CXCR2、FGF-2和 PDGF-BB条带,空白组与阴性对照组的吸光度最强,与干扰组比较具有显著差异。结论: NFATc1 siRNA明显抑制人卵巢癌SKOV3细胞裸鼠皮下移植瘤生长和肿瘤脉管生成,下调CXCR2、FGF-2及PDGF-BB的表达可能为其途径之一。     

姜黄素对裸鼠乳腺移植瘤p21及CD44V6表达的影响

目的: 研究姜黄素对裸鼠乳腺移植瘤p21及CD44V ₆表达的影响。方法: 选用人乳腺癌细胞株MCF-7对裸鼠进行异种移植,成瘤后随机分为2组：（1）阴性对照组；（2）姜黄素组。观测移植瘤的出瘤时间、成瘤率，测量瘤体大小并计算瘤表面积。同时应用RT-PCR，检测2组肿瘤组织中cyclin D1、p21及CD44V₆的表达。结果: 姜黄素组瘤表面积明显低于阴性对照组；姜黄素组p21表达量高于阴性对照组，CD44V₆表达量明显降低，2组的cyclin D1表达差异无显著。结论: 姜黄素抑制裸鼠MCF-7乳腺移植瘤CD44V₆的表达，增加p21的表达。     

慢病毒载体介导Nanog小分子干扰核糖核酸抑制人胃癌裸鼠移植瘤的生长

目的构建对Nanog基因有干扰作用的慢病毒载体,探讨其在人胃癌细胞SGC-7901裸鼠移植瘤模型中的表达,检测其对裸鼠移植瘤生长的影响。方法将前期细胞实验验证有效的siRNA序列构建于慢病毒载体中,制备携带shRNA-Nanog的慢病毒,同时构建胃癌裸鼠移植瘤模型。以lentivirus-shRNA-Nanog感染的裸鼠作为实验组(目的组),以无关序列慢病毒感染的裸鼠(空载体组)及未感染的裸鼠(未感染组)作为对照组,测量肿瘤瘤体体积及质量的变化;活体荧光成像观察总荧光强度及转移情况,Western blot法检测移植瘤组织中Nanog蛋白的表达情况;TUNEL法观察其对皮下移植瘤细胞凋亡的影响。结果经基因测序鉴定,Nanog基因shRNA重组慢病毒表达载体构建成功。活体荧光成像显示感染27 d后,目的组小鼠肿瘤总荧光强度明显低于空载体组和未感染组,裸鼠移植瘤瘤体积及瘤质量小于未感染组及空载体组;Western blot法显示目的组Nanog蛋白表达较对照组明显降低;TUNEL结果显示目的组凋亡指数较对照组明显增大,而空载体组与未感染组比较,差异无统计学意义。结论成功构建了Nanog基因shRNA表达载体并包装成慢病毒颗粒,在体内感染能明显抑制肿瘤生长。     

RNA干扰FABP5基因对人肝癌HepG2细胞裸鼠移植瘤生长的影响

目的:研究脂肪酸结合蛋白5(FABP5)基因沉默的慢病毒载体对人肝癌Hep G2细胞成瘤效应的影响。方法:采用RNA干扰技术构建重组逆转录慢病毒载体。Hep G2细胞分为3组:实验组以FABP5基因沉默慢病毒颗粒(LV-shRNA-FABP5)感染Hep G2细胞;阴性对照组以空载体慢病毒颗粒(LV-shRNA-NC)感染Hep G2细胞;空白对照组不做任何处理。将裸鼠随机分为3组,接种肿瘤细胞后观察裸鼠成瘤情况。4周后测量肿瘤的体积和重量,绘制移植瘤生长曲线。Real-time PCR、Western blot及免疫组织化学法检测裸鼠移植瘤中FABP5的表达。结果:LV-shRNA-FABP5可以降低Hep G2细胞FABP5的表达。3组裸鼠接种癌细胞后均有肿瘤形成。与空白对照组和阴性对照组相比,实验组肿瘤生长速度明显减慢,且体积及重量明显减小(P0.05);实验组裸鼠肝癌移植瘤组织的FABP5 mRNA和蛋白表达水平相比空白对照组和阴性对照组表达明显下降(P0.05)。结论:沉默FABP5基因表达能有效抑制人肝癌裸鼠移植瘤的生长。FABP5可能成为肝癌基因治疗的一个有效靶点。     

siRNA对VEGF蛋白表达的影响及对裸鼠移植肾癌的抑制作用

目的探讨siRNA沉默血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）基因对人肾癌裸鼠移植瘤VEGF蛋白的表达水平及生长抑制作用的影响。方法化学合成针对VEGF的siRNA序列,通过脂质体将VEGF-siRNA转染到ACHN细胞中,将转染VEGF-siRNA的ACHN细胞（A组）、转染空质粒的ACHN细胞（B组）及未转染的ACHN细胞（C组）分别接种于裸鼠背部皮下。在SPF环境中饲养裸鼠并观察各组裸鼠移植瘤的生长情况,每隔5d测定移植瘤体积大小（肿瘤的长轴L,短轴W,肿瘤体积V=1/2LW2）,绘制肿瘤生长曲线,采用免疫组化及Western blot法测定裸鼠移植瘤组织切片中VEGF蛋白的表达水平。结果 A组小鼠移植瘤成瘤及生长明显缓慢,移植瘤的体积和质量均低于B、C组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;移植瘤组织切片免疫组化及Western blot法检测结果提示：与B、C组相比,A组中VEGF蛋白表达量降低,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;而B、C组间瘤体的体积重量及VEGF蛋白表达差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论 VEGF在肾癌的发生、发展中起着重要作用,化学合成的VEGF-siRNA可特异性抑制肾癌细胞中VEGF的表达,抑制肿瘤的生长增殖。     

17-二甲基胺乙基-17-去甲氧基格尔德霉素对人胃癌裸鼠移植瘤血管内皮生长因子表达的抑制作用

目的:观察热休克蛋白90(HSP90)抑制剂17-二甲基胺乙基-17-去甲氧基格尔德霉素(17-DMAG)对人胃癌裸鼠移植瘤生长的影响,探讨17-DMAG对胃癌生长和血管生成的抑制作用。方法:用人胃癌细胞HGC-27接种于裸鼠皮下,建立裸鼠胃癌移植瘤模型;将荷瘤裸鼠随机分为3组,每组8只:17-DMAG组(腹腔注射17-DMAG 25 mg/kg)、5-氟尿嘧啶(5-FU)组(腹腔注射5-FU20 mg/kg)及对照组(腹腔注射生理盐水10mL/kg),4周后测量裸鼠移植瘤的体积及重量,HE染色观察形态学变化,同时采用免疫组化方法检测肿瘤组织中CD31(以阳性细胞数计算肿瘤微血管密度)及血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的表达,采用Western blotting法检测VEGF的表达。结果:17-DMAG组移植瘤体积为(288.10±23.32)mm3,5-FU组移植瘤体积为(366.37±26.42)mm3,对照组移植瘤体积为(957.66±117.51)mm3,前二者与对照组比较,均差异显著(P0.05)。移植瘤重量与对照组比较,17-DMAG组(0.41±0.02)g明显低于对照组(1.12±0.08)g,P0.05;5-FU组(0.48±0.05)g也明显低于对照组(1.12±0.08)g,P0.05;17-DMAG组和5-FU组抑瘤率分别63%和57%,2组抑瘤率无明显差异。17-DMAG组微血管密度(21.72±1.24)比对照组(37.78±1.68)明显减少,P0.05;5-FU组(36.70±1.51)和对照组(37.78±1.68)之间没有显著差异;17-DMAG组肿瘤组织中VEGF的表达(15.39±4.37)明显低于对照组(36.45±7.45)和5-FU组(26.11±6.26)。结论:热休克蛋白90抑制剂17-DMAG可通过降低胃癌组织中血管内皮细胞生长因子的表达抑制肿瘤新生血管的生成,进而抑制裸鼠移植瘤的生长。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.