Neuroprotective effects of basic fibroblast growth factor following spinal cord contusion injury in the rat.

Cytokines and neurotrophic factors have been implicated in the pathophysiology of injury to the central nervous system. While some cytokines are considered pro-inflammatory, other factors promote neuronal growth and survival. The present study investigated the neuroprotective effects of interleukins 1 (IL-1), 4 (IL-4), and 6 (IL-6), nerve growth factor (NGF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in a contusion model of spinal cord injury. Female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 55) sustained a 10-g weight-drop injury to the lower thoracic spinal cord (T10) from a height of 12.5 mm using the NYU impactor. A micro-infusion system (Alzet minipump) was used to continuously deliver drugs or vehicle directly into the epicenter of the contused spinal cord starting 1 or three h postinjury. At the end of 7 days, animals were perfused and the cords removed for histopathological analysis. Longitudinal serial sections were cut on a freezing microtome and stained with cresyl violet. Areas of central necrosis, partial preservation, and total zone of tissue injury were identified and traced by an independent reviewer using a computer based imaging system. The mean total zone of injury in five animals receiving vehicle infusion was 18.04+/-4.20 mm3. The mean zone of partial preservation in these animals was 16.46+/-3.32 mm. Basic fibroblast growth factor reduced the total zone of injury by 33% [p<0.01, least significant difference (LSD) of Fisher] in five animals and the zone of partial preservation by 32% (p<0.01, LSD of Fisher) when compared to controls. There were trends toward reduction in total zone of injury and zone of partial preservation in rats treated with IL-4, CNTF, and NGF versus vehicle; however, none of these reached statistical significance. No significant differences were observed between animals receiving vehicle versus bFGF treatment commencing 3 h after injury. These data demonstrate that the continuous intramedullary infusion of bFGF initiated one hour after moderate contusion injury of the spinal cord significantly reduces the total zone of injury and the zone of partial preservation. These results support the further investigation and possible future clinical application of bFGF in the treatment of acute spinal cord contusion injury.     

Traumatic spinal cord injury produced by controlled contusion in mouse

Previous work from this laboratory has described a rat spinal cord injury (SCI) model in which the mid-thoracic spinal cord is subjected to a single rapid and calibrated displacement at the site of a dorsal laminectomy. Injury is initiated at the tip of a vertical shaft driven by an electromagnetic shaker. Transducers arranged in series with the shaft record the patterns of displacement and force during the impact sequence. In the present study, this device and the relevant surgical procedures were adapted to produce a spinal contusion injury model in laboratory mice. The signal generator for the injury device has also been converted to a computer-controlled interface to permit extension of the model to other laboratories. Mice were subjected to SCI across a range of severities by varying the amplitude of displacement and the magnitude of measured preload force on the dural surface. A moderate injury produced by displacement of 0.5 mm over 25 msec resulted in initial paralysis and recovery of locomotion with chronic deficits in hindlimb function. The magnitude of the peak force, impulse, power, and energy generated at impact were correlated with behavioral outcome at 1 day postinjury, while peak displacement and impulse were the best predictors of behavioral outcome at 28 days postinjury. The shape of the force recording proved to be a highly sensitive measure of subtle variations in the spinal compartment that were otherwise difficult to detect in this small species. The results demonstrate that the electromagnetic spinal cord injury device (ESCID) can be used to produce a well-controlled contusion injury in mice. The unique features of controlled displacement and monitoring of the biomechanical parameters at the time of impact provide advantages of this model for reducing outcome variability. Use of this model in mice with naturally occurring and genetically engineered mutations will facilitate understanding of the molecular mechanisms of pathophysiology following traumatic spinal cord injury.     

Neuroprotective effects of sulforaphane after contusive spinal cord injury

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to oxidative stress, calcium mobilization, glutamate toxicity, the release of proinflammatory factors, and depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) at the site of injury. Induction of the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway can alleviate neurotoxicity by protecting against GSH depletion, oxidation, intracellular calcium overload, mitochondrial dysfunction, and excitotoxicity. Sulforaphane (SF), an isothiocyanate derived from broccoli, is a potent naturally-occurring inducer of the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway, leading to upregulation of genes encoding cytoprotective proteins such as NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase 1, and GSH-regulatory enzymes. Additionally, SF can attenuate inflammation by inhibiting the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway, and the enzymatic activity of the proinflammatory cytokine macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF). Our study examined systemic administration of SF in a rat model of contusion SCI, in an effort to utilize its indirect antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties to decrease secondary injury. Two doses of SF (10 or 50?mg/kg) were administered at 10?min and 72?h after contusion SCI. SF (50?mg/kg) treatment resulted in both acute and long-term beneficial effects, including upregulation of the phase 2 antioxidant response at the injury site, decreased mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines (i.e., MMP-9) in the injured spinal cord, inactivation of urinary MIF tautomerase activity, enhanced hindlimb locomotor function, and an increased number of serotonergic axons caudal to the lesion site. These findings demonstrate that SF provides neuroprotective effects in the spinal cord after injury, and could be a candidate for therapy of SCI.     

钙蛋白酶抑制剂对缺血再灌注损伤脊髓的保护作用

目的 观察大鼠脊髓缺血再灌注损伤后应用钙蛋白酶特异性抑制剂E-64-D,对脊髓神经细胞组织学改变和凋亡的影响及对大鼠后肢运动功能的保护作用.方法 选用纯种雄性成年SD大鼠106只,夹闭右肾动脉分支下腹主动脉30 min,再灌注即刻静脉应用钙蛋白酶特异性抑制剂E-64-D,观察再灌注后3、24、72 h和7 d脊髓损伤节段神经细胞的凋亡及再灌注后24、72h组织病理学改变;对再灌注后72 h的大鼠后肢功能进行评分.结果 脊髓缺血再灌注24 h开始出现神经细胞凋亡现象,脊髓组织出现病理学改变,神经元死亡,胶质细胞增生.应用E-64-D后,凋亡现象和细胞坏死得到抑制,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01).再灌注后72 h后肢功能也得到一定程度的保护.结论 脊髓再灌注损伤后静脉应用E-64-D治疗,可以明显抑制脊髓神经细胞的凋亡,有利于神经元的存活,损伤后3 d大鼠后肢运动功能得到一定程度的改善.     

重组人红细胞生成素治疗脊髓冲击性损伤的实验研究

[目的]研究重组人红细胞生成素(recombinant human erythropoietin,rh-EPO)对脊髓冲击性损伤的治疗效果。[方法]24只新西兰白兔采用重物坠落的方法造成脊髓冲击性损伤。损伤12 h后,对照组静脉给予生理盐水;小剂量组、中等剂量组和大剂量组分别静脉给予rh-EPO 100、500、1000 IU/kg。损伤后24 h、48 h、1周评估下肢神经功能。损伤后1周时处死动物,脊髓标本进行HE和Caspase-3组化染色,电子显微镜评估超微结构损伤。[结果]EPO治疗组的神经功能评分明显高于对照组,HE染色和电子显微镜显示组织和超微结构损伤明显轻于对照组,Caspase-3阳性细胞数明显少于对照组。中等剂量组和大剂量组的治疗效果无显著性差异。[结论]脊髓冲击性损伤后12 h给予人红细胞生成素可减轻脊髓的组织和超微结构继发性损伤,并可对抗神经细胞凋亡,促进脊髓功能恢复。中等剂量EPO是治疗脊髓损伤的适当选择。     

Neuroprotective effects of alpha-lipoic acid in experimental spinal cord injury in rats

Background:

Oxidative stress is a mediator of secondary injury to the spinal cord following trauma.

Objective:

To investigate the putative neuroprotective effect of α-lipoic acid (LA), a powerful antioxidant, in a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI).

Methods:

Wistar albino rats were divided as control, vehicle-treated SCI, and LA-treated SCI groups. To induce SCI, a standard weight-drop method that induced a moderately severe injury (100 g/cm force) at T10 was used. Injured animals were given either 50 mg/kg LA or saline at 30 minutes postinjury by intraperitoneal injection. At 7 days postinjury, neurologic examination was performed, and rats were decapitated. Spinal cord samples were taken for histologic examination or determination of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and DNA fragmentation. Formation of reactive oxygen species in spinal cord tissue samples was monitored by using a chemiluminescence (CL) technique.

Results:

SCI caused a significant decrease in spinal cord GSH content, which was accompanied with significant increases in luminol CL and MDA levels, MPO activity, and DNA damage. Furthermore, LA treatment reversed all these biochemical parameters as well as SCI-induced histopathologic alterations. Conversely, impairment of the neurologic function caused by SCI remained unchanged.

Conclusion:

The present study suggests that LA reduces SCI-induced oxidative stress and exerts neuroprotection by inhibiting lipid peroxidation, glutathione depletion, and DNA fragmentation.     

中药黄芪对实验性脊髓损伤的神经保护作用

目的探讨黄芪(AR)对脊髓继发性损伤的保护作用,并与甲基强地松龙(MP)进行对照.方法 Wistar大鼠60只,以改良Allen氏法制备脊髓打击伤模型,随机分为三组.测定不同药物处理后4 h、8 h、24 h脊髓组织线粒体SOD活性和MDA浓度以及血液流变学改变;光镜观察用药后1、2周黄芪对病理学改变的影响,同时进行联合行为学评分(CBS).结果黄芪处理后脊髓组织MDA浓度明显低于各时相点对照组,SOD活性显著升高(P＜0.01),与MP治疗组无明显差异(P＞0.05).血液流变学指标也有所改善.病理检查发现黄芪治疗组髓鞘受损轻微,组织赦免范围增大.结论黄芪治疗可以缓解脊髓损伤后的脂质过氧化反应,改善微循环,从而发挥脊髓保护作用.     

Chlorpromazine protects rat spinal cord against contusion injury

The protective effect of chlorpromazine on rat spinal cord injury was investigated using a dynamic impact model. A 10 g weight was dropped 5 cm on an impounder placed on the exposed spinal cord at the T-11 level. Changes in potassium concentration on the epidural surface of the injured spinal cord were measured using a combined impounder-K+ electrode assembly. Recovery of motor performance was estimated using the modified Tarlov score. In the injury control (no treatment) group, the recovery was slow. Animals were still paralyzed 4 weeks after injury and none of them could walk; the Tarlov score was 1.88 +/- 0.78 (S.D.). In contrast, the chlorpromazine-treated group (20 mg/kg i.p. 30 min prior to injury) recovered significantly in 4 weeks. Animals could either support body weight or walk with some deficit; the Tarlov score was 4.0 +/- 0.35. Chlorpromazine inhibited potassium efflux from the spinal cord after contusion. Possible mechanisms of protection of neural cells by chlorpromazine are discussed.     

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in spinal cord contusion injury and the effects of chondroitinase treatment

Chondroitinase treatment of experimental spinal cord injury improves recovery of sensory, motor, and autonomic functions. Chondroitinase catalyzes the cleavage of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) from the core proteins of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). Little is known about changes in production of these proteoglycans in the clinically relevant contusion model of spinal cord injury or if CSPG content is altered by chondroitinase treatment. Female Long-Evans rats were injured with a forceps contusion injury and treated on alternate days with chondroitinase ABCI or control enzyme via an intrathecal catheter. Spinal cords were analyzed at specific times after injury. The cord was divided in 4 mm long segments, one containing the lesion, two rostral and two caudal to the lesion. These segments were assessed for CSPG protein and message content (NG2, neurocan and phosphacan) by Western blotting and real-time PCR. CSPG protein content was increased by one day post injury for all CSPGs investigated, and was increased in all segments examined rostral and caudal to the lesion site. Significant increases in CSPG were observed with peak content detected at 7, 7 and 14 days post injury for NG2, neurocan and phosphacan, respectively. Chondroitinase treatment had little impact upon the CPSG protein content. Changes in message levels of these CSPGs are also reported. This demonstrates that expression patterns of CSPGs in contusion injury are similar to those surrounding surgical hemisection lesions and demonstrates that the sensory and motor function enhancing effects of chondroitinase are likely due to removal of GAG chains rather than reduction in CSPG content.     

淫羊藿苷在大鼠脊髓损伤中的神经保护作用

目的:研究淫羊藿苷在大鼠脊髓损伤中的神经保护作用。方法:108只SPF级雄性3月龄SD大鼠按随机数字表法分为实验组、对照组及假手术组3组,每组36只。对照组和实验组采用改良Allen法制作脊髓损伤模型,假手术组仅切开椎板不损伤脊髓。术后即刻实验组给予淫羊藿苷(100 mg/kg)灌胃,对照组和假手术组给予等量生理盐水灌胃,每日2次。术后1、2、3 d采用BBB评分法评定大鼠运动功能;术后72 h采用分光光度法检测髓过氧化物酶(myeloperoxidase,MPO)的活性,酶联免疫吸附测定(ELISA)法检测肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α、白介素(interleukin,IL)-1β的含量,免疫组化染色检测MPO、TNF-α、IL-1β的表达;采用硫代巴比妥酸法检测丙二醛(malondialdehyde,MDA)含量,黄嘌呤氧化酶法检测超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)活性;采用TUNEL法检测细胞凋亡并计算细胞凋亡指数(apoptosis index,AI);光镜观察脊髓损伤后组织病理学的改变并行组织病理学评分。结果:术后各时间点对照组和实验组大鼠BBB评分均显著低于假手术组(P0.05);术后2、3 d实验组大鼠BBB评分均显著高于对照组(P0.05)。术后72 h,对照组和实验组MPO活性和TNF-α、IL-1β的含量显著高于假手术组(P0.05);实验组显著低于对照组(P0.05)。对照组和实验组MPO、TNF-α、IL-1β的表达显著高于假手术组(P0.05);实验组显著低于对照组(P0.05)。对照组和实验组MDA含量显著高于假手术组,实验组显著低于对照组(P0.05);对照组和实验组SOD活性显著低于假手术组,实验组显著高于对照组(P0.05)。对照组和实验组脊髓组织中AI显著高于假手术组,实验组显著低于对照组(P0.05)。对照组和实验组脊髓组织病理学评分均显著高于假手术组,实验组均显著低于对照组(P0.05)。结论:淫羊藿苷能够抑制脊髓损伤后的炎症、脂质过氧化和细胞凋亡,减轻脊髓组织病理学损伤,改善脊髓损伤大鼠的运动功能,有效保护脊髓组织,具有明显的神经保护作用。     

表达VEGF的重组腺相关病毒对大鼠创伤性脊髓损伤的保护作用及其机制研究

目的探讨表达VEGF的重组腺相关病毒(recombinant adeno-associated virus,rAAV)对大鼠创伤性脊髓损伤(spinal cord injury,SCI)的保护作用及其机制。方法取144只成年雄性SD大鼠(体重200～250 g)随机分为4组,每组36只。假手术组(A组)仅手术暴露脊髓。模型对照组(B组)、rAAV-绿色荧光蛋白(green fluorescentprotein,GFP)组(C组)、rAAV-hVEGF165-GFP组(D组)制备创伤性SCI大鼠模型,术后即刻分别予以20μL生理盐水、rAAV-GFP病毒、rAAV-hVEGF165-GFP病毒脊髓注射治疗。术后3、7 d采用BBB评分观察大鼠后肢运动功能变化;术后7 d通过脊髓组织尼氏小体染色观察脊髓组织病理学变化,脊髓组织神经元透射电镜检测及TUNEL凋亡细胞染色观察脊髓神经元凋亡,Western blot检测水通道蛋白4(aquaporin 4,AQP-4)表达;术后1、3、5、7 d ELISA法检测VEGF165蛋白表达。结果 BBB评分显示术后3、7 d D组神经功能较B、C组显著改善(P<0.05)。尼氏小体染色显示术后7 d D组脊髓组织结构破坏明显轻于B、C组(P<0.05)。ELISA检测显示D组VEGF165蛋白表达呈低剂量缓释表达,术后3、5、7 d,D组VEGF165蛋白表达均高于其他3组(P<0.05)。透射电镜检测及TUNEL凋亡细胞染色结果显示术后7 d D组脊髓神经元凋亡较B、C组显著减少,凋亡率显著低于B、C组(P<0.05)。Western blot结果显示术后7 d D组脊髓组织AQP-4蛋白表达明显较B、C组减少(P<0.05)。结论表达VEGF的rAAV通过抗神经元凋亡及减轻脊髓水肿对大鼠创伤性SCI起保护作用。     

Rodent model of chronic central pain after spinal cord contusion injury and effects of gabapentin

Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in abnormal pain syndromes in patients. We present a recently developed SCI mammalian model of chronic central pain in which the spinal cord is contused at T8 using the NYU impactor device (10-g rod, 2.0-mm diameter, 12.5-mm drop height), an injury which is characterized behaviorally as moderate. Recovery of locomotor function was assessed with an open field test and scored using the open field test scale (BBB scale). Somatosensory tests of paw withdrawal responses accompanied by supraspinal responses to both mechanical punctate (von Frey hairs) and nonpunctate (4 mm diameter blunt probe) as well as thermal (radiant heat) peripheral stimuli were performed. Comparisons at the level of the individual animal between precontusion and postcontusion responses indicated significant increases in reactions to low threshold punctate mechanical stimuli, non-punctate stimuli and thermal stimuli (p < 0.05). To demonstrate the validity of this model as a central pain model, gabapentin, an agent used clinically for central pain, was given i.p. at 10 or 30 mg/kg. Gabapentin treatment significantly and reversibly changed the responses, consistent with the attenuation of the abnormal sensory behavior, and the attenuated responses lasted for the duration of the drug effect (up to 6 h). These results support the use of the spinal contusion model in the study of chronic central pain after SCI.     

Neuroprotective effects of Ac.YVAD.cmk on experimental spinal cord injury in rats

BACKGROUND: Apoptosis as a cell death mechanism is important in numerous diseases, including traumatic SCI. We evaluated the neuroprotective effects of Ac.YVAD.cmk and functional outcomes in a rat SCI model. METHODS: Thirty rats were randomized into 3 groups of 10: sham-operated, trauma only, and trauma plus Ac.YVAD.cmk treatment. Trauma was produced in the thoracic region by a weight-drop technique. Group 3 rats received Ac.YVAD.cmk (1 mg/kg, ip) 1 minute after trauma. The rats were killed at 24 hours and 5 days after injury. Efficacy was evaluated with light microscopy and TUNEL staining. Functional outcomes were assessed with the inclined plane technique and a modified version of the Tarlov grading system. RESULTS: At 24 hours postinjury, the respective mean number of apoptotic cells in groups 1, 2, and 3 were 0, 5.26 +/- 0.19, and 0.97 +/- 0.15. Microscopic examination of group 2 tissues showed widespread hemorrhage, edema, necrosis, and polymorphic nuclear leukocyte infiltration and vascular thrombi. Group 3 tissues revealed similar features, but cavitation and demyelination were less prominent than those in group 2 samples at this period. At 5 days postinjury, the respective mean inclined plane angles in groups 1, 2, and 3 were 65.5 +/- 2.09, 42.00 +/- 2.74, and 52.5 +/- 1.77. Motor grading of animals revealed a similar trend. These differences were statistically significant (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Ac.YVAD.cmk inhibited posttraumatic apoptosis in a rat SCI model. This may provide the basis for development of new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of SCI.     

Wnt信号通路与脊髓损伤

利用Wnt信号转导通路治疗脊髓损伤是当今前沿研究课题。Wnt信号通路中Wnt-3a、Wnt-5a等通过调控神经干细胞增殖与分化,促进神经元生成,为脊髓损伤治疗提供了新路径。该文就Wnt信号通路的来源、组成和转导,对神经干细胞的调控和对修复脊髓损伤的影响作一综述。     

Neuroprotective effects of racemic ketamine and (S)-ketamine on spinal cord injury in rat

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to investigate and to compare the potential neuroprotective effects of racemic ketamine, (S)-ketamine and methylprednisolone after an experimental spinal cord injury model in rats.MethodsFifty-nine Wistar albino rats were divided into three main groups as acute stage (A), subacute stage (SA) and sham groups and then acute and subacute stage groups were divided into four groups regarding the used drug as control (CONT), racemic ketamine (RK), (S)-ketamine (SK) and methylprednisolone (MP) groups. A dorsal laminectomy was performed; and spinal cord injury was induced by using a temporary aneurysm clip. Four hours later from the clip compression, except those of the sham and control groups, the drugs (60 mg/kg racemic ketamine, 60 mg/kg (S)-ketamine or 30 mg/kg methylprednisolone) were administered intraperitoneally. At 72th h and 7th days of the study, the spinal cords of rats were removed from T8 level to the conus medullaris level. The specimens were and evaluated histopathologically, tissue lipid peroxidation (LPO) and myeloperoxidation (MPO) levels were measured and biochemically.ResultsThe histopathological results were similar both in the acute and in the subacute stage groups. There was a statistically significant difference among all groups regarding the tissue LPO levels (p < 0.001). There was a statistically significant difference between the CONT-A group and the MP-A, RK-A and SK-A groups (p = 0.004, p < 0.001 and p = 0.007, respectively) in acute stage and between the CONT-SA group and SK-SA group (p = 0.002) in subacute stage. There was a statistically significant difference among all groups regarding the tissue MPO levels (p = 0.001). The median MPO levels were similar among acute stage groups (p = 0.057), but there was a statistical difference among subacute stage groups (p = 0.046).Conclusion(S)-ketamine is more effective than methylprednisolone and racemic ketamine to reduce the LPO levels in subacute stage of spinal cord injury in rats. And, it is as effective as methylprednisolone in preventing secondary spinal cord injury histopathologically.