Evaluation of a national surveillance unit

AIM—The Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU) facilitates national active surveillance of uncommon childhood conditions. This study assessed whether it fulfilled its objectives and satisfied criteria established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for evaluating surveillance systems.METHODS—Anonymous questionnaires were sent to users of the system, individual studies were reviewed, and data were collected from independent sources.RESULTS—Seven hundred and sixty six clinicians, 48 investigators, and 15 public health professionals responded to the questionnaires. Clinicians reported that the APSU was useful, 33% saying information provided by the APSU informed or changed their clinical practice. Most (88%) reported that completing monthly report cards was not a burden. Impact on policy development was limited by suboptimal dissemination of information to public health professionals. Flexibility and timeliness were limited by design. Estimated sensitivity of APSU studies ranged from 92% (congenital rubella) to 31% (drowning/near drowning). Positive predictive value of notified cases was over 70% for most studies.CONCLUSION—The APSU fulfils most of its objectives and meets CDC criteria salient to these. Ways in which the APSU could be improved have been identified, as have methodological challenges and limitations in applying CDC guidelines to this type of unit.     

Severe combined immunodeficiency: a national surveillance study.

National immunodeficiency registers in several countries have reported prevalence but not incidence rates for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). The objective of this study was to document the incidence and type of SCID in Australia, the age and clinical features at presentation and short-term management. The Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit conducts active, monthly, national surveillance of rare disorders with reporting by child-health specialists. Between May 1995 and December 2001, clinicians provided clinical and laboratory data on children newly diagnosed with SCID. Thirty-three incident cases of SCID were identified [incidence 1.8/10(5) live births per annum; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-2.5]. Twenty-six children had classical SCID (1.45/10(5) live births; 95% CI, 0.9-2.0) and 20 (77%) of these were boys. Classical SCID was X-linked in 13 children, autosomal recessive (AR), not further classified in four, and attributed to adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA) in four, interleukin-7 receptor alpha chain deficiency in one, Ommen syndrome in two, and Di George syndrome in two. Twenty-one (81%) received bone marrow/stem cell transplantation, three of whom died between 1 and 4 months after transplantation (two ADA deficient, one AR). Seven children had atypical SCID, five of whom died within 1-4 yr of diagnosis. Most children with SCID presented with failure to thrive and recurrent infections and there was no significant delay between presentation and diagnosis. The reported national incidence of classical SCID in Australia (1.45/10(5) or approximately 4 cases per year or 1/69,000 live births) is consistent with the rate (1.4/10(5)) previously reported in Victoria. Diagnosis is rarely delayed, and transplantation is associated with good short-term survival.     

Fetal alcohol syndrome: a prospective national surveillance study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the epidemiology of cases of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) seen by Australian paediatricians. METHODS: Active, national case-finding using the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU). Monthly reporting of incident cases aged <15 years by paediatricians between January 2001 and December 2004. RESULTS: Over 1150 paediatricians submitted reports each month to the APSU. Of 169 reported cases, 92 fulfilled the study criteria for FAS. There was a significant increase in the number of children reported each year from 2001 to 2004. Of 92 children, 53.3% were male, 35.7% were preterm (<37 weeks' gestation) and 64.6% were of low birth weight (<2.5 kg). Most (94.4%) had high risk exposure to alcohol in utero and 78.3% were exposed to one or more additional drugs. The median age at diagnosis was 3.3 years (range: newborn to 11.9 years): 6.5% were diagnosed at birth and 63% by 5 years of age. Of the 92 cases, 56% had growth deficiency, 53.2% had microcephaly, 85.9% had evidence of central nervous system dysfunction, 24% had additional birth defects, 5.4% had sensorineural deafness and 4.3% had visual impairment. Of children with FAS, 65% were Indigenous, 51% had a sibling with FAS, and only 40.2% lived with a biological parent. CONCLUSION: Our data are the only prospective national data available on FAS throughout the world. These findings highlight the severity, complexity and impact of FAS, the need for effective strategies for prevention, and the necessity for education to facilitate earlier diagnosis, referral and reporting of cases.     

Risk-stratified nosocomial infection surveillance in a neonatal intensive care unit: Report on 24 months of surveillance

Objective : To document the nosocomial infection rate in a single neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in terms of patient workload and device utilization.
Methodology : Nosocomial infections have been identified and documented by the methodology described by the National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System (NNIS), Centres for Disease Control, Atlanta. In addition, antibiotic usage has been surveyed in the NICU and standardized measures of patient exposure to antibiotics stratified by birthweight and gestational age have been described.
Results : Overall nosocomial infection rates compared favourably with the published NNIS figures at 6.2 infections per 100 admissions or 4.8 per 1000 patient days. Infection rates were significantly higher in lower birthweight groups. Device-related infection rates in each birthweight cohort were also very close to published figures and varied less with birthweight group. Antibiotic exposure averaged 12% of total admission days, less than previously published data.
Conclusions : The NNIS system is applicable to Australian NICU and provides an effective tool for monitoring infection episodes.     

Severe combined immunodeficiency: A national surveillance study

National immunodeficiency registers in several countries have reported prevalence but not incidence rates for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). The objective of this study was to document the incidence and type of SCID in Australia, the age and clinical features at presentation and short-term management. The Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit conducts active, monthly, national surveillance of rare disorders with reporting by child-health specialists. Between May 1995 and December 2001, clinicians provided clinical and laboratory data on children newly diagnosed with SCID. Thirty-three incident cases of SCID were identified [incidence 1.8/10⁵ live births per annum; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2–2.5]. Twenty-six children had classical SCID (1.45/10⁵ live births; 95% CI, 0.9–2.0) and 20 (77%) of these were boys. Classical SCID was X-linked in 13 children, autosomal recessive (AR), not further classified in four, and attributed to adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA) in four, interleukin-7 receptor alpha chain deficiency in one, Ommen syndrome in two, and Di George syndrome in two. Twenty-one (81%) received bone marrow/stem cell transplantation, three of whom died between 1 and 4 months after transplantation (two ADA deficient, one AR). Seven children had atypical SCID, five of whom died within 1–4 yr of diagnosis. Most children with SCID presented with failure to thrive and recurrent infections and there was no significant delay between presentation and diagnosis. The reported national incidence of classical SCID in Australia (1.45/10⁵ or ∼4 cases per year or 1/69,000 live births) is consistent with the rate (1.4/10⁵) previously reported in Victoria. Diagnosis is rarely delayed, and transplantation is associated with good short-term survival.     

Impacts of national surveillance for uncommon conditions in childhood

The Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU) facilitates the conduct of national collaborative research that is consistent with national health priorities, has potential to impact on public health, and addresses gaps in knowledge. Since 1993 paediatricians and other child health specialists have contributed monthly data on rare childhood conditions to the APSU. Over 40 conditions, including infectious diseases, injuries, vaccine-preventable diseases and genetic disorders have been studied. Information on epidemiology, frequency, diagnosis, management and short-term outcomes of these conditions is collected and provides evidence to support changes to clinical practice, prevention policy and allocation of health resources. In this review we give examples of the value of information gathered through the APSU surveillance system in the last 14 years.     

Evaluation of device-associated infections in a neonatal intensive care unit

Device-associated infections are common in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICUs) in accordance with the frequent use of invasive devices, and they must be continuously and closely monitored for infection control. Six hundred newborn infants hospitalized longer than 72 hours in Ege University Children's Hospital NICU between January 2008 and December 2010 were prospectively followed for occurrence of device-associated infections (central venous catheter- and umbilical catheter-associated blood stream infections [CVC/UC BSI] and ventilator-associated pneumonia [VAP]). In a total of 10,052 patient days, the VAP rate was 13.76/1000 ventilator days with a ventilator utilization ratio of 0.29, and the CVC/UC BSI rate was 3.8/1000 catheter days with a catheter utilization ratio of 0.24. The CVC/UC BSI rate was lower than national averages, being close to rates reported from developed countries. The VAP rate was higher than the national and international rates and was associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation and very low birth weight. VAP also appeared to be an important risk factor for mortality. The most frequent agents were gram-negative pathogens for VAP and coagulase-negative staphylococci for CVC/UC BSIs, with resistance patterns similar to the previous years. In conclusion, with device utilization rates similar to those in developed countries, our CVC/UC BSI rate was comparable, but the VAP rate was higher than that of the developed countries. Necessary precautions are urgently needed to decrease VAP rates and VAP-related mortality.     

Evaluation of national nutritional anemia prophylaxis programme

An evaluation of the National Nutritional Anemia Prophylaxis Program was carried out in Andhra Pradesh. About 8,000 respondents from about 5,754 households were interviewed and 487 pregnant women were covered for haemoglobin estimation in six selected districts. Nearly 19 per cent of the pregnant women had received folifer tablets, while about 1 per cent of child beneficiaries were receiving the tablets. The acceptance of the programme by the community appeared to be satisfactory. The reasons for poor coverage were reported to be inadequate and irregular supplies. Results indicated that the health functionaries were not properly oriented towards the programme, as many of them were not aware of all the beneficiaries under the programme. Chemical analysis of the tablets indicated that about 30 per cent of the tablet samples had iron content less than the expected levels, and none of them had expected levels of folic acid content.     

Evaluation of the effects of a nucleotide-enriched formula on the incidence of diarrhea. Italian multicenter national study

BACKGROUND: Aim of this study is to evaluate the incidence of diarrhea in children fed with a nucleotide-supplemented formula (Similac FormulaPlus) in comparison with formula without nucleotide supplementation. METHODS: We investigated the effects of a nucleotide-supplemented formula on the incidence of diarrheal episodes in 3315 infants with a multicenter study conduced by 386 pediatricians since March 1998 until October 1999. The study population has been divided into 4 groups based on the type of feeding; group 1 (n = 958) = exclusively nucleotide-supplemented formula, group 2 (n = 824) = exclusively formula without nucleotide supplementation, group 3 (n = 920) = mixed breast-feeding and nucleotide-supplemented formula, group 4 (n = 613) = mixed breastfeeding and formula without nucleotide supplementation. At the beginning of the study the 4 groups did not differ for body weight, length and mass index. The infants were enrolled since the first month up to the end of the third month of life and they were followed-up to the end of the sixth month of life. During the period of observation the growth of lenght, weight and mass index was similar among the 4 groups. RESULTS: Monthly incidence of diarrhea was computed and the comparison between group 1 and group 2 using the summary odds-ratio of Mantel-Haenszel showed that in group 1 the incidence of diarrhea was significantly lower than un group 2 (RR = 0.567); CI 95% = 0.440-0.732); similar results were obtained comparing the incidence of diarrhea between group 3 and group 4, having the former a RR = 0.630 (CI 95% = 0.476-0.834). CONCLUSIONS: The conclusion drawn is that the supplementation with nucleotide of the formula milk decreases the risk of diarrheal episodes during the first six month of life in healthy infants. Such a positive effect is present both in exclusively nucleotide-supplemented formula and in mixed breast-feeding and nucleotide-supplemented formula fed infants. Interpretation of these results is that nucleotides, much more present in human milk than in formula milk, improve the immune defense of the infants stimulating particularly the cell-mediated immunity.     

Evaluation of echocardiography on the neonatal unit

BACKGROUND: Echocardiography is an investigation that is being used increasingly on the neonatal unit. There is some controversy as to whether this service can be provided safely and effectively by neonatologists or whether it should only be performed by paediatric cardiologists. AIMS: To describe (a) the indications for an echocardiogram, (b) the yield and range of positive findings, (c) the resulting changes in clinical management, and (d) the reliability of echocardiography in the hands of neonatologists when it is performed on the neonatal unit. METHODS: Information about all echocardiograms performed on the neonatal unit was collected prospectively. Indications for performing echocardiography, echocardiographic findings, and any resulting changes in clinical management were determined. The concordance of findings in infants who underwent echocardiograms performed by both a neonatologist and a paediatric cardiologist was described. RESULTS: A total of 157 echocardiograms were performed in 82 infants. Echocardiography identified 44 infants with a structural cardiac abnormality and a further 17 infants with a trivial abnormality. In addition, 13 babies were found to have an important functional abnormality. Echocardiography prompted a specific change in clinical management in 64 (78%) babies. In 31 of the 38 infants who had paired scans performed, there was complete concordance between the two examinations. No infants had scans that were completely different. Some discrepancy was identified in seven infants, but this did not prevent appropriate immediate clinical management. CONCLUSIONS: Echocardiography on the neonatal unit has a high yield for the diagnosis of structural and functional cardiac abnormalities, often results in a change in clinical management, and can be a reliable tool in the hands of neonatologists.     

Rotavirus infections in a maternity unit.

Between May and August 1975, rotaviruses were detected in the stools of 76 out of 174 (44%) newborn babies in the maternity unit at this hospital. Infection occurred less frequently in breast-fed than in bottle-fed babies (P less than 0.001). However, only 7 out of 76 (8%) babies who excreted rotaviruses had symptoms and these were mild. Complement fixation tests did not show any apparent difference in the antibody titres or serological responses between mothers of rotavirus positive or negative babies. When 68 faecal extracts known to contain rotaviruses by electron microscopy were inoculated by centrifugation on to monolayers of continuous pig kidney cell cultures (IB-RS-2), rotavirus antigen was detected by immunofluorescence in 65 (95.5%) specimens, 58 being positive after centrifugation at 3000 g and a further 7 after centrifugation at 10 000 g. Antigen was first detected 6 hours after inoculation of specimens, maximum levels being detected at 24 hours.