Indirect and direct relations between aerobic fitness,physical activity,and academic achievement in elementary school students

BackgroundThere is evidence to suggest that increasing physical activity (PA) improves academic achievement (AA) in children and that aerobic fitness is associated with both cognitive function and AA. However, it is not known how these variables are interrelated and analyses with adequate control for socioeconomic variables are needed. It was hypothesized that PA would not directly affect AA but would have an indirect effect on AA through its effect on aerobic fitness. The purpose of this study was to test this hypothesized mediation using path analysis.MethodsCross-sectional data including AA, aerobic fitness, and daily PA assessed through accelerometry were collected from a large sample (N = 687) of 2nd and 3rd grade students. Demographic data were assessed via parent self-report.ResultsA total of 401 students wore the accelerometer for at least 10 h on 3 days or more and were included in the final path analysis to evaluate potential relations among PA (predictor), aerobic fitness (mediator), and WIAT-III subtest standard scores (outcomes; i.e., reading, spelling, and mathematics). Findings showed a direct effect of PA on aerobic fitness (b = .009, p < .001) and an indirect effect (mediation) of PA via fitness on math achievement (b = .003, p < .01) after controlling for student's grade, gender, body mass index, mother's education level, and household income, as well as intraclass correlations among classes and schools. Neither PA nor aerobic fitness were correlated with WIAT-III reading or spelling scores.ConclusionsMediation analysis indicated that PA exerted an influence on math achievement through its effects on aerobic fitness but was not associated with reading or spelling achievement scores.     

Work ability, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness: 2-year results from Project Active

An adequate level of physical activity may maintain or promote work ability in aging workers. Project Active is a randomized trial comparing a Lifestyle physical activity program with a Structured exercise program in sedentary but healthy adults aged 35 to 60 years. Subjects in both groups received 6 months of intensive intervention followed by 18 months of active follow-up. The total number of subjects was 235, from which 80 subjects participated in the work ability assessment. Primary outcome measures were energy expenditure (kcal.kg-1.day-1), cardiorespiratory fitness (peak oxygen uptake in ml.min-1.kg-1), and the Work Ability Index. At 6 months, daily energy expenditure had increased significantly over baseline (mean +/- SD, from 33.0 +/- 0.9 to 34.4 +/- 1.8 kcal.kg-1.day-1) and was maintained over baseline at 24 months (34.0 +/- 2.5 kcal.kg-1.day-1). The significant increase in energy expenditure was observed particularly in moderate levels of activity. The average percentage of body fat was significantly higher at baseline compared with 6 months and 24 months. Peak oxygen uptake increased from baseline significantly during the first 6 months (from 29.6 +/- 5.7 to 30.6 +/- 6.3 ml.min-1.kg-1) and decreased to the baseline level (29.1 +/- 5.5 ml.min-1.kg-1) at 24 months. At baseline, the average Work Ability Index was 44.2 +/- 4.0, and it remained unchanged at 6 months (44.4 +/- 3.9) and at 24 months (44.2 +/- 3.1). In conclusion, a 2-year physical activity intervention increased daily energy expenditure, reduced body fat, and maintained peak oxygen uptake in healthy, middle-aged, sedentary subjects. The average Work Ability Index score at baseline was excellent and did not change during the 2-year physical activity interventions.     

The relationship between school physical activity policy and objectively measured physical activity of elementary school students: a multilevel model analysis

Background

There is evidence of school level variability in the physical activity of children and youth. Less is known about factors that may contribute to this variation. The purpose of this study was to examine if the school health environment (Healthy Physical Environment, Instruction and Programs, Supportive Social Environment, and Community Partnerships) is associated with objectively measured time spent in light to vigorous physical activity among a sample of Toronto children.

Methods

The sample comprised 856 grade 5 and 6 students from 18 elementary schools in Toronto, Ontario. Multilevel linear regression analyses were used to examine the impact of school physical activity policy on students’ time spent in light-to-vigorous physical activity.

Results

Significant between-school random variation in objectively measured time spent in light-to-vigorous physical activity was identified [σ²μ₀ = 0.067; p < 0.001]; school-level differences accounted for 6.7% of the variability in the time individual students spent in light-to-vigorous physical activity. Of the 22 school-level variables, students attending schools with support for active transportation to/from school and written policies/practices for physical activity, accumulated significantly more minutes of physical activity per school week than students who attended schools that did not.

Conclusions

School physical activity policy and support for active school travel is associated with objectively measured time spent in light to vigorous physical activity. School physical activity policy might be a critical mechanism through which schools can impact the physical activity levels of their students.     

The effects of school physical education grants on obesity,fitness, and academic achievement

ObjectiveFoundations and governments fund a number of programs that provide grants to improve school physical education or other forms of school-based physical activity. The effects of these grant programs are unknown. We evaluate the effects of Texas Fitness Now, a program in which the state of Texas granted $37 million to improve physical education in high-poverty middle schools over the 4 school years from 2007–08 to 2010–11. The stated goals of Texas Fitness Now were to reduce obesity, increase fitness, and raise academic achievement.MethodWe summarize how Texas Fitness Now funds were spent and estimate the impact of Texas Fitness Now using a fixed-effects longitudinal model that exploits changes in schools' eligibility over time. Changes in eligibility occurred when eligibility expanded to new schools after year 2 and when the program was terminated after year 4.ResultsMost Texas Fitness Now funds were spent on sports and fitness equipment. Smaller amounts were spent on anti-obesity curricula. Texas Fitness Now improved strength and flexibility, especially among girls, but it did not improve BMI or academic achievement, and it had mixed effects on aerobic capacity. The fitness benefits were not lost in the year after the program ended, perhaps because schools kept the equipment that they had bought during their years of eligibility.ConclusionThe results of Texas Fitness Now were typical for an intervention that relied almost exclusively on physical activity. Programs that improve BMI as well as fitness tend to have a more fully developed nutrition component.     

Physical education, obesity, and academic achievement: a 2-year longitudinal investigation of Australian elementary school children

Objectives. We determined whether physical education (PE) taught by specialists contributed to academic development and prevention of obesity in elementary school children.Methods. Our 2-year longitudinal study involved 620 boys and girls initially in grade 3 in Australia, all receiving 150 minutes per week of PE. One group (specialist-taught PE; n = 312) included 90 minutes per week of PE from visiting specialists; the other (common-practice PE; n = 308) received all PE from generalist classroom teachers. Measurements included percentage of body fat (measured by dual-emission x-ray absorptiometry) and writing, numeracy, and reading proficiency (by government tests).Results. Compared with common-practice PE, specialist-taught PE was associated with a smaller increase in age-related percentage of body fat (P = .02). Specialist-taught PE was also associated with greater improvements in numeracy (P < .03) and writing (P = .13) scores. There was no evidence of a reading effect.Conclusions. The attenuated age-related increases in percentage of body fat and enhanced numeracy development among elementary school children receiving PE from specialists provides support for the role of PE in both preventive medicine and academic development.The education and health of children are prominent considerations in the 21st century. Schools have always had a traditional focus on increasing literacy and numeracy proficiency in children, but now they are increasingly being tasked with preventing obesity as well. Regular physical activity is directly implicated in the prevention of childhood obesity; there is evidence, however, that it may also benefit cognitive development.^1,2Physical education (PE) in schools is an ideal vehicle by which to promote physical activity in children because it is available to all children, and teachers have the opportunity to integrate it into the overall education process. In government elementary (primary) schools in Australia, however, PE is usually conducted by generalist classroom teachers, many of whom have little PE teacher training, thereby diminishing its potential impact. In the United States, there is evidence of a decline in the time allocated to PE,^3–5 which may be related to the recent introduction of national literacy and numeracy assessments.⁶ Data indicating changes in the time allocated to PE in Australia over recent decades are not available; however, the Australian government has also recently introduced national assessments of literacy and numeracy.Recent publications summarizing the literature provide education authorities with little incentive to pay more attention to PE, either on academic grounds or in relation to prevention of childhood obesity. First, a comprehensive review,⁷ although supportive of PE in general, could only conclude that allocating time to PE did not hinder classroom-based learning, a finding supported by a subsequent study incorporating a very large sample size.⁸ Second, researchers conducting a meta-analysis found little evidence to support the claim that school-based physical activity programs were effective in combating childhood obesity.⁹We believe, however, that more positive conclusions may have emerged had all the studies involved in the review and meta-analysis met certain conditions. For example, successful PE requires trained and motivated teachers with well-designed programs,¹⁰ a feature lacking in some studies. Moreover, cross-sectional studies were frequently employed, which are susceptible to confounding factors such as socioeconomic status.¹¹ On the other hand, there were 7 quasi-experimental studies considered in the review conducted by Trudeau and Shephard,⁷ from which they concluded that time spent on PE did not have any negative impact on academic achievement. There might have been stronger effects on academic achievement and body composition had all of the following conditions been met within a single study:

1. involvement of specialist PE teachers,
2. provision of sufficient intervention time and numbers of participants,
3. reliable and valid academic assessments,
4. reliable assessment of body fat, and
5. appropriate control for age-related development.

Complying with these conditions, we investigated whether PE delivered by visiting specialist PE teachers in elementary schools influenced the academic performance and body composition of mid-elementary school children.     

小学生7天体力活动问卷信度和效度的评价

目的　评价小学生 7天体力活动问卷的效度和信度。方法　采用专题小组讨论、观察、专家咨询等方法设计问卷。随机选取北京市城区 4所小学的 4～ 6年级小学生 92名作为调查对象。采用重复实验评价问卷的信度 ,专家评价和Caltrac测量仪分别评价问卷的表面效度、内容效度和准则效度。结果　问卷重复实验的结果之间的一致性较高 ,Kappa值在46.3 %～ 78.9%之间 ,男生斯皮尔曼相关系数r值在 0 .66～ 0 .87之间 ,女生的r值在 0 .57～ 0 .82之间 ,P值均 <0 .0 1。问卷表面效度和内容效度较高 ,问卷结果与Caltrac测量仪结果之间在男女生中差异均无显著性 ,而且两种测量方法在男生中存在显著的正相关关系 (r =0 .46、0 .3 8)。结论　 7天体力活动问卷能可靠地测量北京市城区 4～ 6年级小学生的体力活动水平 ,能有效地测量 4～ 6年级小学男生的体力活动水平     

Assessment of physical education time and after-school outdoor time in elementary and middle school students in south Mexico City: the dilemma between physical fitness and the adverse health effects of outdoor pollutant exposure

Strategies to promote lifelong physical activity among children are needed to stem the adverse health consequences of inactivity. However, the health effects in growing children of long-term exposure to a polluted atmosphere are of deep concern. The atmosphere of south Mexico City (SMC) is characterized by a complex mixture of air pollutants, including ozone, particulate matter, and aldehydes. Radiological evidence suggests that small-airway disease could be present in clinically healthy, tobacco unexposed SMC children. The aim of this study was to assess, by means of a self-reported questionnaire, the physical education class times, daily outdoor after-school exposure time, and tobacco exposure in students attending public elementary and middle schools in SMC. Additionally, the time each student spent viewing television was assessed, and the authors measured each student's weight and height to determine body mass index (BMI, weight in kg divided by height in m2). The survey included 1,159 students in grades 7-9. The authors identified 2 critical periods of outdoor exposure in SMC children that coincided with significant concentrations of both ozone and particulate matter with diameters less than 10 micrometers (PM10): during school time after 11:00 A.M. and in the after-school outdoor activity period, usually extending from 1:00 P.M. to 6:00 P.M. Thirty-two percent of elementary and 61% of middle school students have physical education classes after 11:00 A.M. Students in SMC spend an average of 19.6 hr/wk outdoors in the after-school period, during which time they are engaged in light to moderate physical activities. Half of the students are exposed to tobacco smoke at home, and 7% of middle school students smoke. On the basis of BMI, 60% of students were classified as undernourished, overweight, or obese. No correlations were found between BMI and time spent viewing TV, time outdoors (on weekdays and weekends), or exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. Children and adolescents in SMC are participating in physical activities that enhance multiple components of health-related fitness. However, their activities occur outdoors, where they are exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants throughout the year. The authors believe that SMC children and adolescents must be educated, through both the school and health systems, regarding ways to obtain the necessary exercise while protecting themselves from the high concentrations of pollutants. Individuals should instruct and encourage young people to be involved in lifetime fitness activities and to eat balanced diets, if the goal is to control health-care costs, reduce disease incidence, and improve the overall quality of life of the Mexico City population.     

Schoolwide effects of a multicomponent HIV, STD, and pregnancy prevention program for high school students.

Few studies have tested schoolwide interventions to reduce sexual risk behavior, and none have demonstrated significant schoolwide effects. This study evaluates the schoolwide effects of Safer Choices, a multicomponent, behavioral theory-based HIV, STD, and pregnancy prevention program, on risk behavior, school climate, and psychosocial variables. Twenty urban high schools were randomized, and cross-sectional samples of classes were surveyed at baseline, the end of intervention (19 months after baseline), and 31 months afterbaseline. At 19 months, the program had a positive effect on the frequency of sex without a condom. At 31 months, students in Safer Choices schools reported having sexual intercourse without a condom with fewer partners. The program positively affected psychosocial variables and school climate for HIV/STD and pregnancy prevention. The program did not influence the prevalence of recent sexual intercourse. Schoolwide changes in condomuse demonstrated that aschool-based program can reduce the sexual risk behavior of adolescents.     

Park characteristics,use, and physical activity: A review of studies using SOPARC (System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities)

The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) can obtain information on park users and their physical activity using momentary time sampling. We conducted a literature review of studies using the SOPARC tool to describe the observational methods of each study, and to extract public park use overall and by demographics and physical activity levels. We searched PubMed, Embase, and SPORTDiscus for full-length observational studies published in English in peer-reviewed journals through 2014. Twenty-four studies from 34 articles were included. The number of parks observed per study ranged from 3 to 50. Most studies observed parks during one season. The number of days parks were observed ranged from 1 to 16, with 16 studies observing 5 or more days. All studies included at least one weekday and all but two included at least one weekend day. Parks were observed from 1 to 14 times/day, with most studies observing at least 4 times/day. All studies included both morning and afternoon observations, with one exception. There was a wide range of park users (mean 1.0 to 152.6 people/park/observation period), with typically more males than females visiting parks and older adults less than other age groups. Park user physical activity levels varied greatly across studies, with youths generally more active than adults and younger children more active than adolescents. SOPARC was adapted to numerous settings and these review results can be used to improve future studies using the tool, demonstrate ways to compare park data, and inform park promotions and programming.     

Limited effects of a 2-year school-based physical activity intervention on body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in 7-year-old children

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of a 2-year cluster-randomized physical activity and dietary intervention program among 7-year-old (at baseline) elementary school participants on body composition and objectively measured cardiorespiratory fitness. Three pairs of schools were selected and matched, then randomly selected as either an intervention (n = 151) or control school (n = 170). None of the effect sizes of body composition were statistically significant. Children in the intervention group increased their fitness by an average of 0.37 z score units more than the controls (95% CI:-0.27 to 1.01, P = 0.18), representing an improvement of 0.286 W/kg. Boys had higher fitness (mean(diff) = 0.35 z scores, 95% CI: 0.13-0.58, P = 0.001) than girls, independent of study group, fitness z score at baseline and body mass index. Post hoc analysis showed that the intervention school with the highest fitness z score change was significantly different from two of the lowest control schools (mean(diff) = 0.83 z scores, 95% CI: 0.44-1.21, P < 0.0001 and mean(diff) = 0.70 z scores, 95% CI: 0.29-1.10, P = 0.01), but it was also significantly different from the lowest intervention school (mean(diff) = 0.59 z scores, 95% CI: 0.19-0.99, P = 0.05). The results of this intervention are inconclusive as regards to the effects on fitness, but the intervention did not have any statistically significant effect on body composition.     

The PLUNGE randomized controlled trial: Evaluation of a games-based physical activity professional learning program in primary school physical education

ObjectiveTo evaluate the efficacy of the Professional Learning for Understanding Games Education (PLUNGE) program on fundamental movement skills (FMS), in-class physical activity and perceived sporting competence.MethodsA cluster-randomized controlled trial involving one year six class each from seven primary schools (n = 168; mean age = 11.2 years, SD = 1.0) in the Hunter Region, NSW, Australia. In September (2013) participants were randomized by school into the PLUNGE intervention (n = 97 students) or the 7-week wait-list control (n = 71) condition. PLUNGE involved the use of Game Centered curriculum delivered via an in-class teacher mentoring program. Students were assessed at baseline and 8-week follow-up for three object control FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development 2), in-class physical activity (pedometer steps/min) and perceived sporting competence (Self-perception Profile for Children).ResultsLinear mixed models revealed significant group-by-time intervention effects (all p < 0.05) for object control competency (effect size: d = 0.9), and in-class pedometer steps/min (d = 1.0). No significant intervention effects (p > 0.05) were observed for perceived sporting competence.ConclusionsThe PLUNGE intervention simultaneously improved object control FMS proficiency and in-class PA in stage three students.     

Effects of physical activity on schoolchildren's academic performance: The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) cluster-randomized controlled trial

ObjectiveTo investigate the effect of a seven-month, school-based cluster-randomized controlled trial on academic performance in 10-year-old children.MethodsIn total, 1129 fifth-grade children from 57 elementary schools in Sogn og Fjordane County, Norway, were cluster-randomized by school either to the intervention group or to the control group. The children in the 28 intervention schools participated in a physical activity intervention between November 2014 and June 2015 consisting of three components: 1) 90 min/week of physically active educational lessons mainly carried out in the school playground; 2) 5 min/day of physical activity breaks during classroom lessons; 3) 10 min/day physical activity homework. Academic performance in numeracy, reading and English was measured using standardized Norwegian national tests. Physical activity was measured objectively by accelerometry.ResultsWe found no effect of the intervention on academic performance in primary analyses (standardized difference 0.01–0.06, p > 0.358). Subgroup analyses, however, revealed a favorable intervention effect for those who performed the poorest at baseline (lowest tertile) for numeracy (p = 0.005 for the subgroup 1 group interaction), compared to controls (standardized difference 0.62, 95% CI 0.19–1.07).ConclusionsThis large, rigorously conducted cluster RCT in 10-year-old children supports the notion that there is still inadequate evidence to conclude that increased physical activity in school enhances academic achievement in all children. Still, combining physical activity and learning seems a viable model to stimulate learning in those academically weakest schoolchildren.     

An evaluation of a school-based AIDS/HIV education program for high school students.

The effect of a 1-hr school-based AIDS/HIV education program on the knowledge and attitudes of high school students was evaluated with a modified version of the Centers for Disease Control Health Risk Survey. One urban and one suburban school each were randomly assigned to an educational intervention (n = 535) or a control group (n = 659). All students received a posttest 2 weeks after the intervention. Knowledge was based on responses to 12 true-false questions (pretest alpha = .76, posttest alpha = 0.81). Principal components analysis was used to develop three attitude scales and risk-taking behavior was assessed by self-report. Data were analyzed with Kruskall-Wallis analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate ANOVA. The groups did not differ in knowledge level at pretest. At posttest the education group had significantly (p < or = 0.006) higher knowledge even after controlling for the effects of previous AIDS education (p < or = 0.019), gender (p < or = 0.007), and Hispanic ethnicity (p < or = 0.048). After the education program, students were less worried about exposure to the AIDS virus, but were more worried (p < or = 0.048) about AIDS acquisition during their adult life. Although single school-based AIDS/HIV education programs may increase knowledge, more extensive education may be needed to change the behavior and attitudes of older high school students.     

Evaluation of a 2-year physical activity and healthy eating intervention in middle school children

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a middle school physical activity and healthy eating intervention, including an environmental and computer-tailored component, and to investigate the effects of parental involvement. A random sample of 15 schools with seventh and eight graders was randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (i) intervention with parental involvement, (ii) intervention alone and (iii) control group. In 10 schools, an intervention, combining environmental changes with computer-tailored feedback, was implemented over 2 school years. In five intervention schools, increased parental support was added. Physical activity was measured with questionnaires in the total sample and with accelerometers in a sub-sample of children. Fat intake, fruit, water and soft drink consumption were measured using food-frequency questionnaires. Results showed significant positive intervention effects on physical activity in both genders and on fat intake in girls. Parental involvement did not increase intervention effects. It can be concluded that physical activity and eating behaviours of middle school children can be improved by school-based strategies combining environmental and personal interventions. The use of personalized computer-tailored interventions seems to be a promising tool for targeting adolescents but needs to be further explored.     

The effects of a health education intervention initiated at first grade over a 3 year period: physical activity and fitness indices.

A health education intervention was carried out for three consecutive years on primary school Cretan children. Baseline measures were obtained from 962 pupils (509 boys and 453 girls) registered in first grade in 1992. The health education intervention programme was directed at both the children of the intervention group and their parents, and has a projected duration of 6 years. After the completion of the 3 years of intervention and while pupils were in fourth grade, measures were obtained for evaluation purposes on a random subsample of 393 pupils of the original cohort. Statistically greater improvements in the intervention, as opposed to the control group, were observed for both children's and parents' health knowledge, and children's standing broad jump, sit-ups (SUP), sit-and-reach, handgrip and endurance run test (ERT). Furthermore, time spent on moderate to vigorous physical activities out of school significantly increased for intervention group children compared to the control group. Statistically smaller increases in the intervention as opposed to the control group were observed in suprailiac skinfold and body mass index. The degree of improvement in both SUP and ERT related positively to parent's baseline physical activity score. Finally, the parental attitude of health-related hedonism related negatively to SUP improvement.     

Analysis of food irradiation education for elementary,middle, and high school students for three years in South Korea

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The current South Korean government policy on food irradiation technology should be reformed based on an in-depth investigation of the communications aspect, because the issue is no longer of a technological nature, given the proven safety and efficacy of the processes.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

The target population of the education program consisted of elementary, middle, and high school students attending 310 schools in South Korea (2013: 63 schools, 2014: 104 schools, 2015: 143 schools). Data subjected to analysis were 13,327 pre-education and 12,641 post-education questionnaires received from 7,582 elementary, 2,671 middle, and 3,249 high school students who participated in the education program from May 2012 to April 2015 (n = 12,831), after the exclusion of inadequately filled-in questionnaires.

RESULTS

Analysis of the three-year educational effect trend was conducted by comparing levels of variables before and after food radiation education. The analysis yielded the finding that the post-education levels were significantly higher for all variables. That is, for interest in education, perception (necessity, safety, subjective knowledge, and information acquisition), objective knowledge, and attitude, with the sole exception of objective knowledge in 2013.

CONCLUSIONS

Given that post-education levels of perception, knowledge, and attitude concerning irradiated foods increased considerably compared to pre-education levels, behavior change should be induced by providing continuous education to enhance, these primary variables.     

Evaluation of somatic effects of a health education program for schoolchildren. With special reference to physical activity, nutrition, body composition, and blood lipids.

In a group of 4- to 6-year-old children and a group of 8- to 12-year-old children physical performance capacity, daily physical activity, body composition, blood lipids and daily food intake were determined. Children with a high performance capacity (W170) are more active during the day and do eat more. In the 8- to 12-year-old group it turns out that these extra calories are derived from unfavorable foodstuffs. There are no differences in blood lipids between any of the groups or subgroups. In the 8- to 12-year-old group, children with a low W170 are fatter than those with a high W170. In the younger age group this was not found.