Renal vein and inferior vena cava tumor thrombus in renal cell carcinoma: CT, US, MRI and venacavography.

Renal cell carcinoma has a propensity to extend as tumor thrombus into the renal vein and inferior vena cava (IVC). The preoperative assessment for the presence and extent of renal vein and IVC tumor thrombus is important for planning appropriate surgical resection. Imaging procedures [CT, ultrasound (US), MR, venacavography] were correlated with surgical findings and pathology in 431 consecutive patients who had a radical nephrectomy for renal cell carcinoma. Ninety-nine (23%) patients had tumor thrombus extending at least into the main renal vein. Of these, 29 had tumor thrombus extending within the IVC. Patients were classified into two groups based on the surgical extent of tumor thrombus. Group A patients had no tumor thrombus or had tumor thrombus only in the renal vein proximal to the site of surgical ligation. Group B patients had tumor thrombus that extended to or beyond the distal renal vein at the site of surgical ligation. Forty-one patients had Group B tumor thrombus. Group B tumor thrombus was not seen in a renal cell carcinoma that was smaller than 4.5 cm. The sensitivity of CT for detecting Group B tumor thrombus was 79% and that of US was 68%. However, a much higher percentage of US examinations were technically indeterminate. In the patients who had either MR or venacavography, both imaging procedures were 100% sensitive for detecting group B tumor thrombus. Magnetic resonance imaging and venacavography appear to be the most sensitive means of identifying tumor thrombus.     

肝脏疾病的门静脉介入治疗

经门静脉系统的介入治疗在一些肝脏疾病的治疗中发挥重要作用,如肝细胞癌伴门静脉瘤栓、肝硬化门静脉高压症、门静脉血栓的介入治疗以及选择性门静脉栓塞诱导肝叶代偿性增生。本文主要介绍了这些介入疗法的途径、方法及疗效等情况。     

Hypervascular renal transitional cell carcinoma with extension into the renal vein and inferior vena cava

A rare case of transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) with extension into the renal vein and inferior vena cava (IVC) is presented. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and angiography successfully delineated tumor thrombus in the right renal vein and IVC. TCC should be included in the differential diagnosis of renal tumors that can cause IVC thrombosis.     

肝动脉造影及栓塞对肝癌并下腔静脉癌栓的诊疗价值

目的:探讨肝动脉造影及栓塞对肝癌合并下腔静脉癌栓的诊疗价值。方法:回顾性分析10例肝癌并下腔静脉癌栓的重复肝动脉造影和栓塞的影像学表现及介入治疗意义。结果:10例均在肝动脉造影及栓塞前后显示下腔静脉癌栓血管,8例在栓塞后1~3个月内造影显示下腔静脉癌栓的供应血管增多,癌栓增大,其中2例累及心房。2例下腔静脉癌栓血管不显影。栓塞后癌栓内均见碘油沉积,部分癌栓缩小。结论:原发性肝癌之下腔静脉癌栓由肝动脉主要供血,造影有较好的诊断价值。栓塞对癌栓有一定的治疗作用,不排除有促进癌栓生长的可能。治疗上宜采用综合治疗。     

Renal vein thrombosis in patients with nephrotic syndrome: CT diagnosis

A retrospective evaluation of the computed tomography (CT) findings in 50 patients with the nephrotic syndrome was undertaken. In four patients with clinical manifestations of acute renal vein thrombosis (RVT) on initial examination, the diagnosis was confirmed by CT findings. Three patients had left RVT, one had right RVT, and all four had thrombus in the inferior vena cava (IVC) at the level of the renal veins. Of the remaining 46, otherwise asymptomatic patients, one had bilateral RVT, two had left RVT, and five had isolated IVC thrombus. The abnormalities noted on CT scans were widened renal vein(s) containing thrombus, thrombus in the IVC, renal enlargement, thickened Gerota fascia and formation of pericapsular venous collaterals, and an abnormal renal parenchymal enhancement pattern consisting of prolonged corticomedullary discrimination, delayed and/or persistent paraenchymal opacification, and delayed or absent pyelocalyceal visualization.     

Experimental studies of intrahepatic portal vein embolization and embolic materials

The author has developed the intrahepatic portal vein embolization for the treatment of liver cancers. The purposes of this new method are 1) extension of indications for surgery by causing compensatory hypertrophy of non-embolized lobe, 2) prevention of dissemination of the tumor cells via the portal vein, 3) causing complete ischemic necrosis of the tumor together with arterial embolization, and 4) blockade of centripetal extension of tumor thrombus. The feasibility and safety of this method were studied experimentally. Three kings of materials were prepared for embolization of the portal vein; a Lipiodol-thrombin mixture (Lp-T), a Lipiodol-fibrin adhesive mixture (Lp-F), and a mixture of Lipiodol with isobutyl-2-cyanoacrylate (Lp-IBC). The portal vein was embolized in 31 dogs, 6 with Lp-T, 14 with Lp-F, and 11 with Lp-IBC. Lp-F was used 30 to 90 seconds after preparation, which had been found to be best in an in vitro study. Lp-T and Lp-IBC could be used at any time after preparation. Embolization was done safely and reliably, except in two cases of Lp-F, by use of a balloon catheter for Lp-T or Lp-F and a coaxial catheter for Lp-IBC. Follow-up portography showed recanalization in one week in the dogs embolized with Lp-T. The obstruction was maintained for two to four weeks in the dogs embolized with Lp-F, and for four weeks in all dogs embolized with Lp-IBC. Damage in the liver was slight both macroscopically and histologically. Changes in liver function and elevation of the pressure of the portal vein were transient. The author concluded that the intrahepatic portal vein embolization was both feasible and safe when the materials tested were used, and could be an effective method for liver cancers. In clinical cases, Lp-T would be suitable for short-term occlusion, Lp-F for a moderate term, and Lp-IBC for long-term. The material should be selected with regard to the purpose.     

Suprarenal inferior vena cava filter placement prior to transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) of a renal cell carcinoma with large renal vein tumor thrombus: Prevention of pulmonary tumor emboli after TAE

To prevent embolization of necrotic renal vein tumor after transcatheter embolization of a left renal cell carcinoma, we placed a suprarenal Bird’s nest inferior vena cava filter. The patient tolerated the procedure well and had extensive tumor infarction including the tumor thrombus on 6-month follow-up computed tomography.     

Vena cava duplication — anomaly simulating neoplastic renal vein involvement

Routine investigation of the patient with renal cell carcinoma includes assessment of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and renal veins for tumor thrombus. Embryologic abnormalities of the vena cava may lead to an erroneous diagnosis of tumor extension into the renal vein. Knowledge of possible venous variations will decrease this potential diagnostic error.     

Is there still a place for angiography in the management of renal mass lesions?

In recent years, the development of noninvasive imaging modalities for exploration of the kidney has markedly reduced the use of angiography in the evaluation of renal masses. Presently, it is not required in routine practice to evaluate renal masses. Ultrasound is the most efficient procedure in detecting renal tumor. It is acknowledged that arteriography has a limited diagnostic and staging value compared with CT and MRI for the assessment of renal cell carcinomas (RCC). Most urologists recommend partial nephrectomy or tumor enucleation in an effort to preserve as much as possible functioning renal tissue. In such cases a preoperative map of the renal vasculature is not needed. Information on the main renal artery(ies) and segmental renal arteries can be provided with spiral CT or dynamic MR angiography. Arteriography remains useful in exceptional situations. Interventional arteriography is becoming an important part. It is indicated by means of selective embolization for the treatment of potentially bleeding tumor (i. e. angiomyolipoma) or in emergency in cases of acute hemorrhage. Less frequently, it may be proposed as a palliative procedure for inoperable patients with huge renal tumor. Two other indications of interventional arteriography are acknowledged. Some urologists request preoperative embolization of the tumor-harboring kidney to decrease/avoid extensive blood loss during surgery and/or to facilitate surgery with huge renal tumors when the renal vessels are difficult to reach. The complications of nephron-sparing surgery (partial nephrectomy or tumor enucleation) related to bleeding or arteriovenous fistulas may be cured by arterial embolization. Received: 18 May 1998; Revision received: 3 August 1998; Accepted: 6 August 1998     

经皮门静脉栓塞治疗肝癌的临床应用

目的探讨经皮选择性门静脉右支栓塞(PVE)在肝癌治疗中的应用价值。方法12例无手术切除指征的中晚期肝癌患者,在电视透视引导下经导管行经皮穿肝或穿脾行PVE。栓塞前、后用CT测量左侧肝叶的体积,并测量栓塞前后的门静脉压力、肝功能。结果12例患者均成功行经皮PVE,栓塞术后左肝叶代偿增生明显,其中3例PVE后顺利实行右肝切除术。PVE后未出现门静脉高压,肝功能损害轻,均未发现并发症。结论经皮选择性PVE能诱导非栓塞侧肝叶代偿性增生及栓塞侧肝叶萎缩,增加肿瘤手术切除机会,提高手术切除的安全性,对于无法手术切除的肝癌患者重新获得手术切除的机会,具有潜在的临床应用价值。     

Renal vein ethanol concentration during ablation of renal cell carcinoma

Absolute ethanol is an effective embolizing material for the ablation of renal cell carcinoma with a balloon catheter. We have measured the renal vein ethanol concentration during embolization in 9 patients in order to determine whether toxic levels are achieved. Total occlusion of the embolized arteries was obtained using an average of 12.9 ml (range 8–18) ethanol. Renal vein ethanol concentration varied from trace amounts to 0.79%. There was a significant correlation of the maximum renal vein concentration with the ethanol dose per tumor size. The authors conclude that the renal vein ethanol concentration remains sufficiently low to be harmless when a proper balloon occlusion is used. The optimum ethanol dose may be a function of tumor size.     

Pilot study of transcatheter arterial ethanol embolization under closed renal circuit for large renal cell carcinomas

The safety of a new technique, designated "transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) with aspiration via a balloon-occluded renal drainage vein" (TAE-ABOD), for the management of large renal cell carcinomas (RCCs). The subjects were 25 patients with RCC who underwent a total of 27 sessions of TAE-ABOD. This TAE-ABOD technique incorporates two procedures: balloon occlusion of renal drainage vein and infusion of absolute ethanol into the tumor-feeding arteries during aspiration of blood via a balloon catheter, thereby reducing leakage of absolute ethanol into the systemic circulation. Our primary endpoint was to establish a safe regimen for high-dose ethanol injection therapy, and our secondary endpoint was to assess global survival of the patients. The administered dose of ethanol ranged from 0.2 to 0.5 ml/kg [median: 0.34 (SD: 0.10) ml/kg], increased in a stepwise manner. The systemic ethanol concentration was measurable in 14 patients, and was less than 0.1 mg/ml in 12 and from 0.1 to less than 0.2 mg/ml in two. There were no major complications such as renal failure or renal abscess. TAE-ABOD can safely deliver a high dose of absolute ethanol for the treatment of large RCCs.     

经皮经肝钢圈选择性门静脉栓塞术在肝门部胆管癌术前的应用

目的 探讨肝门部胆管癌扩大肝切除术前使用经皮经肝钢圈选择性门静脉栓塞术(PVE)的应用和疗效.方法 2007年4月至2009年1月收治肝门部胆管癌28例,分为两组,将预保留肝占全肝体积<50%、接受PVE者设为PVE组12例,其中10例最终接受联合扩大肝切除者设为PVE肝切除组;同期未行PVE而接受扩大肝切除术者为非P...     

原发性肝癌伴门静脉癌栓的外科治疗

目的:探讨原发性肝癌伴门静脉癌栓(PVTT)外科治疗的方法及疗效。方法:27例均行肝癌连同PVTT切除或经门静脉断端取栓或切开主干取栓。术后18例同时行肝动脉及门静脉化疗,单纯行5例肝动脉插管化疗栓塞术(TACE),未做化疗4例。结果:术后1、3、5年生存率分别为66.7%(18/27)、29.63%(8/27)、11.11%(3/27)。结论:外科手术是治疗肝癌合并PVTT的有效方法,术后辅以门静脉化疗及TACE术能明显提高治疗效果。     

VX2兔肝门静脉主干癌栓模型建立的实验研究

目的 利用原位种植的方法制备VX2兔肝门静脉主干癌栓动物模型,观察癌栓生长过程中的影像学与病理学特点.方法 新西兰大白兔24只,随机分为实验组(16只)和对照组(8只).实验组通过外科手术方式将VX2瘤块固定于门静脉主干内壁.对照组取自体肌肉组织块以同样方法固定于门静脉主干内壁.术后分别于第7、14、21天和第28天对2组兔进行CT检查.实验组每个观察点随机取3只兔进行DSA检查,随后处死作病理学检查.对照组在每个观察点完成CT检查后随机取1只兔处死做病理检查.剩余兔观察生存时间.结果 实验组16只兔中15只顺利完成手术,接种成功率93.8%,15只兔门静脉主干内均形成癌栓,剩余3只兔平均生存时间为(39.3±2.1) d.CT及DSA检查可显示癌栓影像学特征,病理学检查证实癌栓存在并发现新生肿瘤血管形成.结论 通过原位种植的方法可以成功获得门静脉主干癌栓的动物模型,其影像和病理特征与人原发性肝癌合并的门静脉癌栓相似.     

Abdominal venous system: assessment using MR

Twenty-five patients with known or suspected evidence of venous disease based on results of computed tomography, angiography, or ultrasound were imaged with magnetic resonance (MR) to determine the MR characterization of venous abnormalities. MR findings were proved by laparotomy or autopsy in 18 of 25 cases. In seven of 25 patients in whom only biopsy was performed, the MR findings were correlated with findings from other radiologic tests. On MR, the inferior vena cava (IVC), portal vein, and their major tributaries were seen in all but two cases. In those two, identification of collaterals led to the correct diagnosis of splenic vein thrombosis in one case and left renal vein thrombosis in another. MR imaging helped identify intraluminal thrombi in the IVC (12 of 12 cases), portal vein (two of two cases), renal veins (seven of seven cases), superior mesenteric vein (one case), and iliac veins (seven of seven cases). Intraluminal signal intensity secondary to slow blood flow seen in five patients was always differentiated from the thrombus. MR imaging helped identify correctly the nature of the thrombus in 11 of 16 patients. In five patients, the differentiation between tumor thrombus and blood clot thrombus was not possible. Involvement of the IVC wall by tumor was seen in four cases. MR imaging also accurately depicted slow flow in obstructed or constricted veins; encasement, compression, or displacement of veins without intraluminal occlusions; and the presence of venous collaterals. The MR imaging evaluation of venous abnormalities is accurate, easily performed, and will probably become an important application.     

Positron emission tomography-computed tomography imaging characteristics of an inferior vena cava tumor thrombus with magnetic resonance imaging correlation

Thrombus of the renal vein or inferior vena cava is a known complication of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Accurate discrimination between bland and malignant thrombus can have significant implications toward clinical management. Distinguishing between these 2 entities is not usually possible with enhanced computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging. This case reports the role of combined positron emission tomography-CT imaging in the accurate detection of recurrent RCC after partial nephrectomy and surgically proven tumor thrombus in the renal vein and inferior vena cava.     

Neoplastic-induced renal vein enlargement: sonographic detection

Five patients with sonographic evidence of a dilated renal vein are described. The etiology of the dilated renal vein was tumor thrombus in two patients, neoplastic arteriovenous shunting in two, and portal systemic shunting into the left renal vein in one. Tumor thrombus had echogenic enlargement of the renal vein, whereas anechoic enlargement of the renal vein was secondary to increased blood flow within the renal vein. Portorenal shunting can be differentiated from a neoplastic renal arteriovenous fistula by the presence of thrombus within the portal system and the absence of a renal mass. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of renal vein enlargement are discussed.     

下腔静脉病变的螺旋CT诊断

目的 探讨下腔静脉病变的螺旋CT及下腔静脉CT血管造影（CTP）的影像特点。资料与方法 40例肿瘤侵犯下腔静脉及下腔静脉病变,采用螺旋CT平扫、增强扫描及下腔静脉CTP检查,分析不同扫描模式及后处理图像所示病变的部位、范围、密度变化特点及侧支循环形成。结果 19例肝癌沿肝静脉侵犯下腔静脉,癌栓位于下腔静脉肝段及肝上段;邻近下腔静脉肝段的肝癌直接侵犯下腔静脉;6例轻度强化,未见明显侧支循环形成。9例肾癌沿肾静脉侵犯下腔静脉,癌栓位于肾上段,无强化,见肾包膜静脉侧支形成及性腺静脉增粗。5例下腔静脉血栓管腔狭窄或闭塞,呈节段性,壁不光整,可见条状或斑点状钙化,CTP后延迟扫描,病变段无明显强化,见明显的侧支循环。3例下腔静脉内血管平滑肌瘤病,起自子宫,沿卵巢静脉及髂静脉上行,经下腔静脉侵入右心房,病变密度较均匀,无钙化及坏死囊变,强化较明显,病变段附近见大量侧支循环形成。发育异常所致布一加综合征（Budd-Chiari syndrome）3例,表现为肝上段节段性狭窄,周围见大量的侧支循环形成。下腔静脉内平滑肌肉瘤1例,病变位于肝下段下腔静脉,呈节段性增粗,边缘不光整,密度不均,延迟CT扫描后不均匀强化,邻近见大量侧支循环形成。结论 下腔静脉病变的CT表现以充盈缺损、无或轻-中度强化、管腔狭窄及侧支血管形成为特征,下腔静脉CTP的三维重建能立体显示管腔狭窄和侧支血管,合理的CT扫描模式有利于病变的诊断和确定手术方案。     

肾动脉栓塞治疗肾脏疾病的临床评价

目的 研究肾动脉栓塞术在肾外伤出血及肾肿瘤术前病人的临床应用。方法 对106例进行超选择性肾动脉栓塞，其中72例为肾肿瘤术前栓塞，34例为肾外伤性出血，应用明胶海绵碎屑及金属圈．栓塞肿瘤血管及出血动脉。结果 肾肿瘤术中易剥离，出血少，术野清晰、缩短术时；肾出血34例，除一例肾切除外．其余栓塞后出血均停。结论 肾动脉栓塞有助于肾肿瘤的手术切除。对肾外伤出血者采用超选择性肾动脉栓塞．可降低开放手术率．最大限度保存肾脏。