Rey auditory–verbal learning test: Structure of a modified German version

The Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) is widely used in scientific research as well as in clinical practice. But there exists little research on the structure of the AVLT. We investigated the structure of a German version of the AVLT, and VLMT, in 232 patients of a psychiatric clinic and in 872 patients of an epileptologic clinic. First we stated a theoretical LISREL model relating the observed variables of the VLMT to short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) as latent variables. Then we estimated the postulated LISREL model in the two samples. The proposed model showed excellent fit in both samples, and there were no significant deviations between the estimated and the observed covariance matrices. Thus, STM and LTM suffice to explain the structure of the VLMT, and the proposed structural equations model can be used to estimate STM and LTM capacity from VLMT data. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 53 : 663–671, 1997.     

Rey auditory-verbal learning test: Structure analysis

One of the major advantages of the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) is its multiple measures of learning and memory. This study evaluated empirically whether the different scores are, in fact, not merely different expressions of a single factor, but, rather, measures of different memory domains. The Rey AVLT was administered to 146 normal subjects. Factor analyses produced one, two, or three factors depending on the combination of scores included in the analysis and on the criteria used to determine the number of factors. The basic factors identified were acquisition and retention. The latter can be subdivided further into storage and retrieval, thus yielding a total of three factors.     

Influence of verbal intelligence,sex, age,and education on the rey auditory verbal learning test

The effects of verbal intelligence, sex, age, and education on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) were investigated. The RAVLT is a widely used instrument for assessing memory dysfunction. Healthy volunteers (N = 114) between the ages of 40 and 84 years participated. In the best‐fitting regression model, verbal intelligence and sex accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in performance on every learning trial of the RAVLT. Age was related to performance only on Trials 1 and 2, and education was not related to performance. Higher verbal intelligence was associated with better performance and women performed consistently better than men. These results suggest that many tests reporting an aging effect may, in reality, be reflecting heterogeneity in verbal intelligence and sex differences in the populations studied. Therefore, research and clinical conclusions based on such aging effects should be interpreted with caution.     

Test-retest reliability of a new form of the auditory verbal learning test (AVLT).

The equivalence between the original form (Form 1) of the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT), and a new form (Form 4) was examined in 51 normal adult subjects (20-67 years) of average estimated intelligence who were assessed in two separate sessions. Performance on the new form was equivalent to that on the original and most measures on the two tests showed significant positive correlations. Test-retest reliability of AVLT scores between sessions was also assessed, both globally and separately for Form 1 followed by Form 4 and for the reverse order. The most reliable measures on the AVLT were the total number of words learned over the five learning trials, (r =.77), and performance on the retention trial of the learning list following the presentation and performance of the distractor list (r =.70). These measures are sufficiently robust for use in clinical serial assessments.     

Rey II: Redesigning the Rey screening test of malingering

This study has redesigned the Rey 15-item Visual Memory Test (1964) by introducing more complex figures and by increasing internal logic and pattern redundancy. Standardized administrative procedures and rules for a simple qualitative scoring system were established. Performance on the original Rey continued to be significantly contaminated by ability components and illness while performance on the Rey II qualitative scoring system was not significantly related to intelligence, age, mental status or memory. The Rey II demonstrated improved face validity. Linear Discriminant Function Analysis indicated that the qualitative scoring system had a higher classification accuracy than the quantitative system on both instruments; the Rey II qualitative scoring system accurately detected 31% more college malingerers than the Rey quantitative and 21% more clinical malingerers than the Rey II quantitative. A malingering cut-off of two qualitative errors gave the Rey II a 79% higher sensitivity in the college malingerers and 29% higher specificity in the clinical population than the standard quantitative Rey cut-off of nine items. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 53 : 757–766, 1997.     

Assessment of brain impairment with the rey auditory verbal learning test: A comparison with other neuropsychological measures

In this study the effectiveness of The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) at assessing patients with mixed brain impairment was compared with that of a number of other commonly used neuropsychological measures. Subjects were 50 patients with a mixture of medically confirmed neuropathologies, and 50 controls with no evidence of neurological history. Groups were equated for age, education, and sex. The AVLT was administered as pan of a full neuropsychological battery. Results indicated that all seven AVLT recall trials and the total of Trials I-V could significantly differentiate between the two groups (p <.001). The AVLT trial V score performed best (U = 457.5, p <.0001), correctly predicting group membership for 74% of the subjects. This hit-rate was better than any other single test on the Halstead-Reitan or Dodrill batteries, and was surpassed only by the Dodrill Discrimination Index. The potential usefulness of this test as part of a neuropsychological battery is discussed.     

Sequence and space: The critical role of a backward spatial span in the working memory deficit of visuospatial learning disabled children

The clinical use of backward spatial short-term memory tasks, and in particular of the Corsi backward task, it has increased and it has generated a series of theoretical hypotheses. For example, it has been argued that (in its comparison with the forward version) it has the same implications as the backward digit span and/or it requires the use of amodal central executive components of working memory. This research tested the hypotheses that the backward spatial span does not involve the controlled use of the same type of sequential spatial processing involved in the forward version, that its impairment is modality specific, and that children with specific visuospatial learning disabilities (VSLD) have lower performance in backward than in forward Corsi Blocks test, compared to a control group. In Study 1, participants were administered a verbal span test (Digit Span test) and a visuospatial span test (Corsi Blocks task) both in the forward and backward versions, while in Study 2 only the Corsi test was administered. The comparison between the forward and backward span versions showed that both visuospatial learning disabled children (VSLD) and controls presented with the Digit Span had a lower performance with the backward version. However, for the Corsi task, this difference was present only for VSLD children. In fact, results revealed a significant impairment in the backward version of the Corsi test in the VSLD group, but not in the forward version, and in the Digit Span tasks. Results suggest that the Corsi backward task is not the spatial analogue of the Digit backward task and that it involves specific spatial processes.     

Sequence and space: The critical role of a backward spatial span in the working memory deficit of visuospatial learning disabled children

The clinical use of backward spatial short-term memory tasks, and in particular of the Corsi backward task, it has increased and it has generated a series of theoretical hypotheses. For example, it has been argued that (in its comparison with the forward version) it has the same implications as the backward digit span and/or it requires the use of amodal central executive components of working memory. This research tested the hypotheses that the backward spatial span does not involve the controlled use of the same type of sequential spatial processing involved in the forward version, that its impairment is modality specific, and that children with specific visuospatial learning disabilities (VSLD) have lower performance in backward than in forward Corsi Blocks test, compared to a control group. In Study 1, participants were administered a verbal span test (Digit Span test) and a visuospatial span test (Corsi Blocks task) both in the forward and backward versions, while in Study 2 only the Corsi test was administered. The comparison between the forward and backward span versions showed that both visuospatial learning disabled children (VSLD) and controls presented with the Digit Span had a lower performance with the backward version. However, for the Corsi task, this difference was present only for VSLD children. In fact, results revealed a significant impairment in the backward version of the Corsi test in the VSLD group, but not in the forward version, and in the Digit Span tasks. Results suggest that the Corsi backward task is not the spatial analogue of the Digit backward task and that it involves specific spatial processes.     

Locus of control and personality functioning of learning disabled children

Evaluated the personality functioning of 51 learning disabled children, who ranged in age from 7 through 11. Significant externality was noted for both males and females. Older children were significantly more external than their younger counterparts. Males were significantly more unintelligent, assertive, impulsive, independent, shrewd and anxiously insecure. Females tended to be unintelligent, submissive, dependent, serious and inhibited. Analyses of sex differences indicated that males were significantly more assertive, impulsive and independent than females.     

Differential performance of learning disabled and non-learning disabled children on the McCarthy scales,WISC-R,and WRAT

Individually administered the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, WISC-R, and WRAT to 30 learning disabled and 30 non-learning disabled second-grade students. The McCarthy General Cognitive Index and the WISC-R Full Scale IQ scores were compared for both groups. In addition, correlations between the General Cognitive Index, WISC-R IQ, and mean WRAT achievement were reported. There was marginal support for previous studies that suggested that the McCarthy Scales are more consistent with the academic functioning of learning disabled students. Implications and directions for future research were discussed.     

Memory and verbal learning functions in twins with bipolar-I disorder, and the role of information-processing speed

BACKGROUND: Euthymic bipolar-I disorder (BP I) patients and their siblings have shown impairments in verbal learning and memory functions compared with controls, suggesting that these impairments may be genetic in origin. Reduced information-processing speed has been associated with impaired memory in the elderly, and recently in schizophrenia. The authors compared verbal learning and memory functioning in twins with BP I and co-twins to control twins, and examined whether the observed deficits are related to information-processing speed. METHOD: Finnish Medical and Population Registers and Twin Cohorts were used to identify the BP I and control twins. Neuropsychological tests assessing verbal learning and memory, working memory, facial recognition, visual memory, and information-processing speed were administered to 26 BP I twins, 19 non-bipolar co-twins, and 114 controls. Group differences were analyzed by generalized estimation equation modeling. RESULTS: BP I patients, but not co-twins, showed impairments in all memory tests compared with controls. Female co-twins showed impairment in verbal learning and memory. Information-processing speed had a significant effect on encoding and learning efficiency. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed for the first time that information-processing speed is related to memory functioning and verbal learning in BP I in a population-based, representative and euthymic sample. Furthermore, the data support the view that defects in verbal memory may be related to the genetic factors predisposing to BP I in females.     

The Adaptive Digit Ordering Test: clinical application, reliability, and validity of a verbal working memory test.

In the face of ample experimental evidence on the importance of working memory capacity for everyday life, there is a growing need for measures suited for clinical assessment of working memory. For this purpose, the Adaptive Digit Ordering Test (DOT-A), a new version of a digit ordering test introduced by Cooper et al. [Brain 114 (1991) 2095], was developed in analogy to the Digit spans. In Study 1, we investigated DOT-A performance in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and patients with frontal lobe damage, as these groups often exhibit working memory impairments within the framework of executive dysfunctions. In comparison with matched controls, both patient groups showed reduced performance in DOT-A but not in Digit span performance. This pattern was found to be particularly sensitive for patients with PD. In Study 2, DOT-A performance was assessed in 50 healthy subjects carefully selected according to demographic criteria in order to ensure representativity. Parallel test and split-half correlations indicated sufficient reliability of the DOT-A. Concurrent validity was confirmed by significant correlation with a well-established working memory test (two-back task). We conclude that DOT-A is a promising diagnostic instrument, and its economy and direct comparability to the Wechsler Digit spans and high sensitivity for patient populations make it especially well-suited for assessment in clinical practice.     

Magnesium valproate in learning disabled children with interictal paroxysmal EEG patterns: Preliminary report

While cerebral lateralization has previously been well documented for many neurobehavioral functions, recent research has shown that as people age, formerly lateralized processes recruit more symmetric patterns of neural activity. Such findings provide the foundation for the model of hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults, or "HAROLD"[4]. Previous studies that have measured reaction time and movement time have suggested that aging does not affect manual asymmetries. However, whether these findings can be extended to kinematic variables associated with motor coordination remains largely unknown. The purpose of the current study is to determine whether asymmetries in intralimb coordination are also reduced during the aging process. We examined multidirectional reaching in two different right handed age groups, a younger group from 20 to 40 years of age, and an older group, from 60 to 80 years of age. Measures of final position accuracy, precision, and trajectory linearity showed robust asymmetries between the left and right arm groups of young adults. However, the trajectories and accuracies of the older subjects were symmetric, such that our dependent measures were not significantly different between the right and left arm groups. Our findings extend the HAROLD model to motor behavior, suggesting that aging results in decrements in motor lateralization.     

Magnesium valproate in learning disabled children with interictal paroxysmal EEG patterns: Preliminary report

Previous studies have investigated whether routine use of antiepileptic drugs is adequate to improve cognitive abilities in children who are learning disabled not otherwise specified (LD NOS) and who display interictal paroxysmal patterns in the electroencephalogram (EEG) but do not have epilepsy, and the findings of these studies have been controversial. In the current study, 112 LD children without epilepsy were assessed; however, only 18 met the strict inclusion/exclusion criteria in order to obtain a homogeneous sample. These children showed interictal paroxysmal patterns in the EEG, and a randomized, double-blind trial was carried out on them. The children were treated with either magnesium valproate (MgV; 20 mg/kg/day) or a placebo for six months, and differences in WISC subtests, in a computerized reading skills battery (BTL) and EEG recordings were evaluated between groups before and after the treatment period. Performance IQ score and several items of the BTL (rhymes and ordering of words) improved in children who received MgV, whereas no changes were observed in the placebo group. No changes in the number of interictal paroxysmal patterns were observed in any group; however increased EEG currents at 10.92 and 12.87 Hz (alpha band) in posterior regions and decreased currents in frequencies within the theta band (3.90, 4.29 and 5.07 Hz) in frontal regions and at 4.68 and 5.46 Hz in the parietal cortex were observed, suggesting an improvement in EEG maturation.