Anatomic bases of ankle arthroscopy: study of superficial and deep peroneal nerves around anterolateral and anterocentral approach

Summary We studied the anatomy of the anterolateral and anterocentral portal sites for ankle arthroscopy with reference to the superficial peroneal nerve (SPN) in 29 cadavers (51 ankles) and the deep peroneal nerve (DPN) in 11 cadavers (21 ankles). In relation to the level of division into the medial and intermediate cutaneous nerves and their terminal branches, we classified the structure of the SPN surrounding the ankle into five types. We also identified the point where the SPN and the DPN cross the level of the talocrural joint. 32% of specimens had different SPN division types on the two sides and there was an average of 2 nerves at the level of the talocrural joint. Branches of the SPN were found lateral to the edge of the peroneus tertius tendon in 11.8% of specimens, and at its lateral edge in 27.5%. The DPN and some branches of the SPN were positioned around the lateral edge of the extensor hallucis longus tendon. We consider that the anterolateral portal should be made at least 2 mm lateral to the peroneus tertius tendon to avoid injury to the SPN, since the diameter of the scope is 2.7 mm. The anterocentral portal is unsuitable for arthroscopy due to a high risk of injury to the DPN and branches of the SPN.

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Etude anatomique des nerfs fibulaires superficiel et profond au niveau des voies antéro-latérale et antéro-centrale pour arthroscopie de la cheville

Résumé Nous avons étudié l'anatomie des voies antéro-latérale et antéro-centrale pour arthroscopie de la cheville, et notamment leur rapport avec le n. fibulaire superficiel (NFS) sur 29 cadavres (51 chevilles) et le n. fibulaire profond (NFP) sur 11 cadavres (21 chevilles). Par rapport au niveau de division des nn. cutanés médial et intermédiaire et de leurs branches terminales, nous avons classé la disposition du NFS en regard de la cheville dans 5 types. Nous avons identifié le point où le NFS et le NFP croisaient l'interligne articulaire talo-jambier. 32% des spécimens présentaient un site de division du NFS différent à droite et à gauche, et il y avait en moyenne deux nerfs en regard de l'art. talo-jambière. Les branches du NFS étaient latérales au bord du tendon du m. troisième fibulaire dans 11,8 % des cas, en regard de son bord latéral dans 27,5% des cas. Le NFP et quelques branches du NFS se trouvaient en regard du bord latéral du tendon du m. long extenseur de l'hallux. Nous pensons que la voie antéro-latérale devrait être réalisée au moins 2 mm latéralement au tendon du m. troisième fibulaire pour éviter la blessure du NFS, car le diamètre de l'endoscope est de 2,7 mm. La voie antéro-centrale est, pour nous, inappropriée pour l'arthroscopie de la cheville en raison d'un risque élevé de la blessure du NFP et des branches du NFS.

     

Navigation for ankle arthroscopy: anatomical study of the anterolateral portal with reference to the superficial peroneal nerve

We aimed to navigate the surgeon regarding the localization of the main anatomical structures at the anterior part of the ankle joint, in order to find easily the safest anatomical points with reference to the superficial peroneal nerve (SPN), in particular for anterolateral portal placement in ankle arthroscopy. Sixty-three ankles in 36 fresh cadavers were dissected. In all specimens we examined (1) the distance between the SPN bifurcation and the most distal point of the lateral malleolus; and at the level of ankle joint, (2) the number of SPN, (3) the distance between the medial and intermediate dorsal cutaneous nerves, which are branches of the SPN, (4) the localization of the peroneus tertius (PT) tendon in relation to the lateral malleolus, (5) the width of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) tendon, (6) the relationship of the PT tendon and (7) the relationship of the extensor hallucis longus (EHL) tendon with the SPN. The results were as follows: (1) In 41 ankles with bifurcation (65%) the average distance was 71.8±35.3 mm. (2) There were two SPN branches in 39 (62%), three branches in seven (11%) and one branch in 17 (27%) cases. (3) In 39 ankles with two branches of the SPN, the mean distance was 15.2±7.1 mm. (4) The lateral border of the PT tendon was positioned a mean distance of 20.8±3.3 mm proximal and 25.2±5.8 mm medial to the reference points. (5) The mean width was 10.1±2.9 mm. (6) In 42 ankles (67%) the distance between the lateral border of the PT tendon and the SPN was a mean of 6.2±6.6 mm, median of 3 mm (range 0–22 mm lateral to the tendon). (7) In 56 cases (89%) a branch of the SPN was found a mean of 6.6±4 mm and a median of 6 mm lateral to the EHL tendon, and in seven cases (11%) on the tendon. According to our study, in ankle arthroscopy the risk of the SPN injury is maximal in the 0–3 mm lateral to the PT tendon. To avoid injury to the SPN, the safest placement of the anterolateral portal is 4 mm lateral to the PT tendon.     

关节镜下踝部骨折治疗的疗效分析

目的探讨关节镜监视下踝部骨折复位固定的治疗效果。方法 2010年10月~2012年9月共26例采用关节镜监视下踝部骨折复位固定,以AOFAS踝关节功能综合评分法进行疗效评价。结果关节镜监视下踝部骨折复位固定26例,术后1年患者平均得分为(95±3)分。结论关节镜监视下踝部骨折复位固定具有可在直视下指导骨折复位,到达切开复位难以到达的区域,清除关节内游离骨片及炎性滑膜等优势,有利于关节功能的恢复。     

关节镜射频治疗踝前外侧软组织撞击征

目的探讨踝关节前外侧软组织撞击综合征的关节镜下表现及关节镜射频治疗效果方法本组22例,均有踝关节扭伤史。踝关节疼痛、肿胀反复发作,活动后加重。撞击实验阳性。关节镜下等离子射频刀清除踝关节前外侧嵌顿之软组织。下胫腓联合处的骨赘予以咬除,射频汽化技术固缩修整边缘及残端。结果按照McGuire评分系统对患者术前、术后的情况进行评估：术后优良率90.9%,无1例感染、无血管神经损伤和术后复发。结论运用关节镜下等离子射频汽化技术治疗踝关节前外侧软组织撞击征为一有效的治疗方法。     

全踝关节镜手术治疗陈旧性外踝撕脱骨折并发踝关节不稳的疗效观察

目的:探讨全踝关节镜手术治疗陈旧性外踝撕脱骨折并发踝关节不稳的临床疗效及可行性。方法:回顾性分析。纳入2017年1月—2019年1月徐州市中心医院骨科陈旧性外踝撕脱骨折并发踝关节不稳患者21例(21足),其中男12例、女9例,年龄16～63 (31.34±12.17)岁,右侧13例、左侧8例。21足均采用全踝关节镜下修...     

Model-based ankle joint angle tracing by cuff electrode recordings of peroneal and tibial nerves

The main goal of the present study was to estimate the ankle joint angle from the peroneal and tibial electroneurography (ENG) recordings. Two single-channel cuff electrodes for recording ENG were placed on the proximal part of rabbit peroneal and tibial nerves respectively and static positioning and ramp-and-hold stretches were performed to characterize the static and dynamic ENG responses. An ENG model, consisting of static and dynamic parts, was constructed to relate ENG to ankle angle trajectory and an inverse ENG model was derived to predict ankle angle. The results showed that the new model could accurately estimate large-range ankle angles during and after ramp-and-hold movements. Our study provides a basis for implementing joint angle tracing without using artificial angle sensors.     

The communicating branches between the sural and superficial peroneal nerves in the foot: a review of 55 cases

The rich sensory innervation of the ankle and foot is manifest through the numerous communicating branches linking the neural trunks, particularly the superficial peroneal and sural nerves on the anterolateral aspect of the hindfoot. The 35 communicating branches seen in 55 dissections (58%) were proximal in half of the cases, lying in the malleolar and lateral tarsal regions, and distal in the other half, in the metatarsal region. The communicating branch was straight in 25 cases and curved in 11. The average distances of the communicating branch from the crest of the lateral malleolus and the tubercle of the 5th metatarsal was 4.7 and 4.1 cm, but there was a wide range of values. We believe that stretching of the proximal communicating branch during forced inversion of the ankle and/or foot or during fractures of the calcaneus or direct injury in surgical approaches or arthroscopy of the ankle may lead to unexplained pre- and submalleolar pain. Advances in modern imaging may allow recognition of these branches and guidance of infiltration and even neurolysis in cases of failure of conservative treatment.     

The possibility of deep peroneal nerve neurotisation by the superficial peroneal nerve: an anatomical approach

Neurotisation involves transfer of nerves for the restoration of function following injury. A number of nerves have been used in different part of the peripheral nervous system. This study was undertaken to develop a practical and relatively safe surgical approach to the treatment of L4 root lesion's. We examined the effectiveness and safety of neurotisation of the deep peroneal nerve and its branches by the superficial peroneal nerve. Twelve legs of dissected cadavers provided for teaching purposes in the anatomy laboratory were used to display the common peroneal nerve and its branches. Each branch was measured using calipers and analysed to investigate the possibility of neurotisation of the deep peroneal nerve by the superficial peroneal nerve and its branches. It was found that of the measured branches, transposition was possible between those to peroneus longus and tibialis anterior on the basis of their diameter and length. In recent decades, advances in microsurgical reconstruction and understanding of the microanatomy have played major roles in improving the results of surgical treatment of nerve injuries. There is a need for further experimental studies on the feasibility of this surgical approach.     

掌浅弓、掌深弓的组成分支吻合及其临床意义

目的:研究掌浅弓、掌深弓的组成类型、分支及吻合,为临床手外科提供解剖学基础.方法:在78例手的铸型标本上观察掌浅弓、掌深弓的组成、分支及吻合.结果:(1)掌浅弓分5型:Ⅰ.尺动脉型由尺动脉的终支构成,其分支直接到示指、拇指,不与其它动脉的分支吻合,占19.2%(15例).Ⅱ.桡尺动脉型由桡动脉分支与尺动脉构成,占51.3%(40例).Ⅲ.尺动脉掌深弓型由尺动脉的终支和掌深弓构成,占15.4%(12例).Ⅳ.桡正中尺动脉型由桡动脉、正中动脉和尺动脉构成,占10.3%(8例).Ⅴ.无弓型没有掌浅弓,桡动脉掌浅支分支营养拇指、示指及中指桡侧半,尺动脉分支营养中指尺侧半、无名指、小指,占3.8%(3例).(2)掌深弓分2型:Ⅰ.完伞型掌深弓由桡动脉的终支与尺动脉或其它分支构成,占93.6%(73例).Ⅱ.非完全型掌深弓是桡动脉的终支不与其它分支吻合.占6.4%(5例).掌浅弓、掌深弓互相吻合且发出许多分支.结论:掌浅弓、掌深弓分支众多,吻合丰富,变异大,临床手术时应熟练掌握相关知识.     

腓浅神经痛诊治的解剖学基础(系列介绍之十五)

目的 介绍腓浅神经痛的诊断与局部注射的治疗方法。方法 选择门诊确诊为腓浅神经痛的患者18例，采用强的松龙混悬液加麻药局部注射神经穿出小腿深筋膜的部分的治疗方法。结果 所有病例皆在注射后短时完全止痛，多数病例一周后痊愈，少数病例经1～3次注射后痊愈。结论 对诊断明确的病例，采取强的松龙局部注射法，可以获得满意的疗效。     

Anatomic localization of motor entry point of superficial peroneal nerve to peroneus longus and brevis muscles

This study examined the anatomic location of the motor entry point (MEP) and branching point at the proximal and distal points of the tendon of the peroneal muscle by visual observation. Forty-three fresh legs of 25 adult bodies which had been donated to science were investigated in this study. The mean length of the reference line between the most proximal point of the head of the fibula (PHF) and the most distal point of the malleolus of the fibula (DMF) was 33.4 ± 2.5 cm. The MEPs of the peroneus longus (PL) and peroneus brevis (PB) gathered from 20 to 40% (7.0-13.0 cm) and 40 to 60%, respectively. The branching point where the nerve was divided to innervate the PL and PB was 10% and 28% from the PHF, respectively. These anatomic results suggest appropriate areas where to inject phenol or other agents for a MEP block in the case of a spastic lower extremity as well as guidelines for an electromyography conduction test.     

Identifying the emergence of the superficial peroneal nerve through deep fascia on ultrasound and by dissection: Implications for regional anesthesia in foot and ankle surgery

Regional anesthesia relies on a sound understanding of anatomy and the utility of ultrasound in identifying relevant structures. We assessed the ability to identify the point at which the superficial peroneal nerve (SPN) emerges through the deep fascia by ultrasound on 26 volunteers (mean age 27.85 years ± 13.186; equal male: female). This point was identified, characterized in relation to surrounding bony landmarks (lateral malleolus and head of the fibula), and compared to data from 16 formalin‐fixed human cadavers (mean age 82.88 years ± 6.964; equal male: female). The SPN was identified bilaterally in all subjects. On ultrasound it was found to pierce the deep fascia of the leg at a point 0.31 (±0.066) of the way along a straight line from the lateral malleolus to the head of the fibula (LM‐HF line). This occurred on or anterior to the line in all cases. Dissection of cadavers found this point to be 0.30 (±0.062) along the LM‐HF line, with no statistically significant difference between the two groups (U = 764.000; exact two‐tailed P = 0.534). It was always on or anterior to the LM‐HF line, anterior by 0.74 cm (±0.624) on ultrasound and by 1.51 cm (±0.509) during dissection. This point was significantly further anterior to the LM‐HF line in cadavers (U = 257.700, exact two‐tailed P < 0.001). Dissection revealed the nerve to divide prior to emergence in 46.88% (n = 15) limbs, which was not identified on ultrasound (although not specifically assessed). Such information can guide clinicians when patient factors (e.g., obesity and peripheral edema) make ultrasound‐guided nerve localization more technically challenging. Clin. Anat. 32:390–395, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Neural fibrolipoma of the superficial peroneal nerve in the ankle: a case report with immunohistochemical analysis

This report presents a case of neural fibrolipoma arising from the superficial peroneal nerve in the ankle. A 28-year-old woman was referred with a soft tissue mass in the anterior aspect of the right ankle, which had been gradually enlarging for the past 10 years. Magnetic resonance imaging showed a mass lesion, measuring approximately 8 x 3 x 2 cm, with high to partially low signal intensity on both T1- and T2-weighted images. A band of low signal intensity within the lesion, which is indicative of coexistence with the tumor and the superficial peroneal nerve, could be detected on both T1- and T2-weighted images. The patient underwent an excisional biopsy. The specimen microscopically consisted of nerve bundles and fibro-fatty proliferation with abundant collagen fibers. Immunoreactivity for CD34 antigen antibody was detected in fibrous spindle cells. This is the first report to present an immunohistochemical profile of neural fibrolipoma. Neural fibrolipoma should be considered as a differential diagnosis when a lipomatous lesion is encountered in the foot or ankle as well as in the upper extremities.     

足踝部损伤术前并发下肢深静脉血栓形成的危险因素分析

目的 探讨足踝部损伤患者术前并发下肢深静脉血栓形成（DVT）的相关危险因素。方法 回顾性研究。纳入2015年1月—2021年1月南通大学附属医院收治的881例足踝部损伤患者,根据术前血管超声检查,并发DVT患者34例,无DVT患者847例。从847例无DVT患者中按数字表法随机抽取35例为非血栓组,其中男16例、女19例,年龄22~70岁。并发DVT 34例为血栓组,其中男16例、女18例,年龄35~80岁。患者均行足踝部切开复位钢板或克氏针内固定术或跟腱缝合术。统计881例足踝部损伤患者术前并发下肢DVT的发生率、发生部位及出现时间;对血栓组和非血栓组患者,纳入性别、年龄、体质量指数（BMI）、是否有合并伤、制动时间、制动方式、高血压、糖尿病、高血脂等影响因素,做术前并发DVT的单因素、多因素logistic回归分析,采用比值比（OR）及95%可信区间（CI）进行风险评估。结果 881例患者中,34例并发DVT,发生率为3.86%;其中,DVT发生时间≤7 d 19例,8~14 d 9例,>14 d 6例;血栓发生于胫前静脉2例,腓浅静脉血栓7例,肌间静脉血栓25例。34例患者经治疗后均痊愈,无一例死亡。血栓组与非血栓组比较,在年龄、BMI、存在合并伤、制动时间、合并高血压及糖尿病等方面差异均有统计学意义（P值均<0.05）。多因素logistic回归分析显示：存在合并伤（OR=2.790,95% CI 1.315~5.918,P=0.007）、制动时间（OR=2.387,95% CI 1.112~5.122,P=0.026）是足踝部损伤患者术前并发DVT的独立危险因素。结论 有合并伤、制动时间≥5 d是足踝部损伤患者术前并发DVT的独立危险因素。对于足踝部损伤患者,术前应加强下肢静脉血栓形成预防措施,减少并发DVT的风险。     

X射线联合磁共振成像评估踝关节损伤分型：自身对照、3个月随访临床试验研究方案

BACKGROUND: Radiography is commonly used for investigating ankle injury, but is inadequate for diagnosing some ankle fractures and ligamentous injuries. Thus, radiography cannot be used for accurate fracture classification or to formulate a treatment program. In contrast, magnetic resonance imaging can clearly show occult ankle fractures and ligamentous injuries, and can diagnose fracture combined with ligamentous injury. Therefore, radiography combined with magnetic resonance imaging may potentially be adequate for fracture classification and postoperative evaluation.     

以踝关节解剖结构及生物力学特征分析慢性踝关节不稳

背景：长期慢性踝关节不稳可引起创伤性关节病及继发粘连关节囊炎,甚至成为永久性功能障碍。 目的：分析踝关节的生物力学,明确慢性踝关节不稳的形成原因,探讨慢性踝关节不稳的诊断方法及治疗方案。 方法：检索1990年1月至2014年12月PubMed数据库和万方医学网,选取与慢性踝关节不稳有关解剖、生物力学、诊治等相关方面的综述及基础实验研究的文章。检索词：“慢性踝关节不稳,踝关节解剖,生物力学,治疗方法,研究进展”和“Chronic ankle instability,Anatomy of ankle joint,Biomechanics,Therapy, Research”。经过筛选后纳入40篇文献,对踝关节解剖学结构、慢性踝关节外侧不稳机制及分级、诊断方法、治疗方法等内容的总结。 结果与结论：慢性踝关节不稳的诊断方法包括踝关节内翻应力试验、踝关节前抽屉试验、超声检测、现代影像学检测;慢性踝关节不稳的治疗方法分为保守治疗和手术治疗,手术可分为非解剖学重建和受损韧带解剖修复。慢性踝关节不稳患者应进行早期的诊断和有效的治疗,应综合踝关节解剖结构、生物力学特征、发病原因、诊断结果等因素决定治疗方案。 中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：组织构建;骨细胞;软骨细胞;细胞培养;成纤维细胞;血管内皮细胞;骨质疏松;组织工程全文链接：     

核磁共振成像和关节镜诊断膝前疼痛患者软骨病变的比较

目的探讨核磁共振成像(MRI,SPIR/3DT1-FFE序列)在诊断膝前疼痛患者软骨病变中的价值。方法74例髌股关节疼痛患者(78膝)进行MRI检查和关节镜手术。选择SPIR/3DT1-FFE序列对软骨进行成像,按照Recht分级标准对软骨的病变进行诊断。关节镜下按照Outerbridge分级标准进行诊断,分析MRI分级和关节镜分级的相关性和SPIR/3DT1-FFE诊断软骨病变的敏感性及特异性。结果通过MRI(SPIR/3DT1-FFE序列)可以较好显示髌骨软骨的4层结构。MRI和关节镜对软骨病变分级之间存在正相关(U=3.97,P<0.01)。同关节镜相比,MRI对Ⅰ级软骨诊断的敏感度为58.30%,特异度为97.83%;对Ⅱ级软骨诊断的敏感度为67.61%,特异度为95.94%;对Ⅲ级软骨诊断的敏感度为93.58%,特异度为97.48%;对Ⅳ级软骨诊断的敏感度为91.80%,特异度为98.02%。MRI诊断软骨损伤总体敏感度为93.87%,特异度为95.63%。结论MRI(SPIR/3DT1-FFE序列)是诊断软骨病变的理想序列,MRI和关节镜检查对关节软骨的评价各有特色,两者存在着较高的相关性和互补性,MRI在诊断早期软骨内部病变方面比关节镜有优势。将两者结合起来,可以更好地对髌股关节软骨病变作出诊断。     

Dimensions of the anterior tarsal tunnel and features of the deep peroneal nerve in relation to clinical application

Background The aim of this study was to demonstrate anatomical features of the anterior tarsal tunnel and the deep peroneal nerve and to discuss the importance of these structures for the anterior tarsal tunnel syndrome and some other surgical approaches to minimize the injury risk. Methods Lower limbs of 18 formalin fixed cadavers were examined. The limbs showed no evidence of pathology or trauma. Results The lateral length of the tunnel was 21.7 ± 4.3 mm and the medial length of the tunnel was 55.0 ± 9.0 mm. The width of the tunnel at the inferior border between the extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus tendons was 12.6 ± 2.1 mm. The location of the deep peroneal nerve bifurcation was in the anterior tarsal tunnel in 31 specimens (86.1%) and distal to the tunnel in two specimens (5.6%). In three specimens (8.3%) there was no bifurcation because of the absence of the medial terminal branch of the deep peroneal nerve. In these three specimens, the superficial peroneal nerve distributed to the adjacent sides of the great and second toes. Bifurcation above the tunnel was not observed in our specimens. There was connection between the deep peroneal nerve and the superficial peroneal nerve in 10 specimens (27.8%) in the first interdigital space. During the observations, the presence of a fibrous band over the nerve and vessel was noted in 22 specimens (61.1%). Conclusions We believe that a detailed anatomic knowledge of the anterior tarsal tunnel and the deep peroneal nerve will be of help during surgical approaches to this area and the diagnosis of the problems related to the peripheral nerves on the dorsum of the foot. This study was presented on the 4th Asian-Pacific International Congress of Anatomists (APICA 2005) in Kusadasi, Turkey on 7-10 September 2005.     

踝关节外侧韧带和距下关节韧带修复重建的应用解剖

目的 :为踝关节外侧韧带和距下关节韧带损伤修复重建提供解剖学基础。方法 :在 3 2侧经防腐固定、8侧冷藏新鲜标本上解剖观测踝关节外侧韧带和距下关节韧带及小趾趾长伸肌腱、第 3腓骨肌腱、腓骨短肌腱、伸肌下支持带 ,在新鲜标本上摹拟修复术。结果 :小趾趾长伸肌腱、第 3腓骨肌腱、腓骨短肌腱、伸肌下支持带解剖位置恒定 ,与踝关节外侧韧带和距下关节韧带相毗邻 ,具有一定的长、宽、厚度 ,可形成移植供体。结论 :①陈旧性踝关节外侧韧带和距下关节韧带的损伤 ,原位修复较难 ,用肌腱转位修复是一种可行的方法 ;②可用腓骨短肌腱修复距腓前和跟腓韧带损伤 ,小趾趾长伸肌腱和第 3腓骨肌腱转位修复距下关节韧带 ,伸肌下支持带可用作加强缝合 ,术式经标本摹拟具有可行性。