Epiphyseal and physeal injury: comparison of conventional radiography and magnetic resonance imaging

PurposeTo compare conventional radiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the assessment of epiphyseal and physeal injury.Materials and methodsSeventeen cases with epiphyseal and physeal injury were examined with conventional radiography and MRI. Two blinded experienced radiologists separately evaluated the results retrospectively.ResultsTwo Salter–Harris II fractures showed displacement of epiphysis and metaphyseal fragment, as well as T1 hypointensity and T2 hyperintensity in the physis on MRI. Three Salter–Harris IV fractures showed a fracture line in the epiphysis and metaphysis on two modalities, as well as linear T2 hyperintensity in the physis. All five slipped epiphysis showed signal intensity abnormality in the physis on MRI aside from the physeal widening and epiphyseal displacement seen on radiographs. Seven patients with bony bridge formation showed premature closure of the physis, shortening, and remodeling of the end of bones involved.ConclusionsConventional radiography and MRI are both useful in the diagnosis of epiphyseal and physeal injury. MRI can provide more detailed information, which could direct treatment planning and prognosis predicting.     

Distal humeral epiphysiolysis in the newborn: utility of sonography and differential diagnosis

Fracture–separation of the distal humeral epiphysis in newborn is a rare entity, usually the result of a traumatic delivery. It can mimic elbow dislocation and, due to the absence of ossification of the epiphysis at that time, cannot be diagnosed radiographically. However, ultrasound is an important diagnostic tool for this purpose because it is able to clearly visualize the cartilaginous epiphysis. In addition, it allows the differential diagnosis with posterior elbow dislocation whose therapeutic management and prognosis are different.We report the case of a preterm newborn in which a fracture–separation of the distal humeral epiphysis was diagnosed with the help of sonography. The purpose of this report is to emphasize the utility of echography as a cheap, available, and noninvasive tool for the evaluation of the nonossified epiphysis in the newborn elbow.     

Chronic stress injuries of the elbow in young gymnasts.

The radiological changes of chronic stress injuries of the elbow in 19 adolescent elite gymnasts are reported. The principal abnormalities were avascular necrosis of the capitellar epiphysis (Panner's disease) (one patient), post-traumatic subarticular necrosis (osteochondritis dissecans) of the capitellum (six patients) and the medial articular eminence of the distal humerus (one patient). Flattening and anterior depression of the radial head epiphysis with an underlying metaphyseal notch associated with an epiphyseal cleft (three patients), which, in one patient who continued training, developed into a chronic Salter Type IV stress fracture. A further patient, post-epiphyseal fusion, showed osteochondritis dissecans of the anterior aspect of the radial head. Seven patients exhibited a spectrum of olecranon changes from fragmentation of the epiphysis to chronic Salter Type I stress fractures of the growth plate. A follow-up survey found that, of those who responded to a questionnaire, nearly all the patients with articular surface damage failed to continue with competitive gymnastics whereas those with olecranon abnormalities were able to continue gymnastics at the same level. The mechanism of injury and the pathological changes are discussed.     

Proximal femoral focal deficiency: radiologic analysis of 49 cases

Proximal femoral focal deficiency, an uncommon congenital anomaly, necessitates early radiologic classification for surgical planning and treatment. Objective radiographic criteria, including femoral length index, acetabular depth index, acetabular angle index, and shape of the proximal femur were determined in 49 patients before cartilaginous ossification of the femoral capital epiphysis; final classification was based on follow-up radiographs or findings at arthrography or surgery. These parameters were analyzed to determine the accuracy and contributions of each in classification. Correct classification into one of three groups was possible in 86% of cases with use of three of the parameters: femoral length index, acetabular depth index, and shape of the proximal femur. The acetabular angle was found to contribute insignificantly to classification. Magnetic resonance imaging, used in only one case, depicted the nonossified cartilaginous femoral capital epiphysis, thus obviating the need for invasive diagnostic procedures and facilitating early classification.     

Magnetic resonance imaging in acute physeal injuries

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) permits noninvasive evaluation of the cartilage of the growth plate and epiphysis. This paper reports three cases where MRI was used to supplement conventional radiography in the assessment of acute physeal injuries. In the first patient, MRI was used for postoperative assessment of a radial neck fracture, avoiding further surgical exploration. In the second case, MRI was compared with ultrasonography in the diagnosis of proximal humeral epiphyseal separation in a neonate. In the third case, MRI and computed tomography were compared in evaluation of a Salter-Harris type 4 distal femur fracture. In all cases MRI was diagnostic. MRI is the investigation of choice in acute complex physeal injuries, and is particularly appropriate for use prior to the appearance of the secondary ossification center.     

191例儿童肘关节创伤X线诊断及预后评估

目的：回顾性研究儿童肘关节创伤X线诊断,方法：收集儿童肘关节创伤X线资料191例,其中骨骺损伤60例,髁上骨折112例,肘关节脱位12例,尺骨鹰嘴骨折并桡骨小头骨折2例,和桡骨小头脱位5例。结果：肘关节囊脂肪垫X线征阳性109例;53例骨骺分离合并有干骺端骨折;髁上骨折愈合复便发现肘内翻畸形24例,骨化性肌炎11例,结论：肘关节囊脂肪垫X线征阳性是肘关节骨折或脱位的一个重要间接征象,出现率达575;肘关节骨骺损伤中大多数合并有干骺端骨折（88．3％）;髁上骨折肘内翻发生率低,而骨化性肌炎较常见。     

MR Imaging of Pediatric Elbow Trauma

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the pediatric elbow is important because it allows delineation of fracture type in a joint with complex anatomy, made more complex by the variable appearance of ossification centers of the distal humerus.1-4 Acute and chronic injuries can be evaluated with MRI using several classification systems. Accurate diagnosis of pediatric elbow trauma with MRI has management implications. For example, a Salter-Harris II fracture can be differentiated from a Salter-Harris IV physeal fracture by delineating intra-articular fracture extension and displacement, which requires open reduction internal fixation. The former is treated with closed reduction if nondisplaced, and the latter, with open reduction and internal fixation. The rate of complications in this age group is high and the treatment for these deformities thereafter can be difficult. There is also a useful role for MRI when the clinical history is unobtainable or absent as in a case of child abuse, for example. The multiplanar capability of MR allows for good preoperative planning to delineate fragment displacement. The main fracture classifications are presented.     

Epiphysenfugenverletzungen der distalen Tibia Sinnvolle Mehrinformation durch die MRT?

Plain film radiography often underestimates the extent of injury in children with epiphyseal fracture. Especially Salter-Harris V fractures (crush fracture of the epiphyseal plate) are often primarily not detected. MRI of the ankle was performed in 10 children aged 9-17 (mean 14) years with suspected epiphyseal injury using 1.0-T Magnetom Expert. The fractures were classified according to the Salter-Harris-Rang-Odgen classification and compared with the results of plain radiography. In one case MRI could exclude epiphyseal injury; in four cases the MRI findings changed the therapeutic management. The visualisation of the fracture in three orthogonal planes and the possibility of detection of cartilage and ligamentous injury in MR imaging makes this method superior to conventional radiography and CT. With respect to radiation exposure MRI instead of CT should be used for the diagnosis of epiphyseal injuries in children.     

Delayed treatment of a malreduced distal femoral epiphyseal plate fracture.

Fractures of the epiphyseal plate are considered rare when compared with the more prevalent injuries found in competitive sports, but the complications associated with this type of trauma are a major concern. The factors affecting the success or failure of healing include the severity of injury, patient age, and the type and expedience of treatment. This case study examines the clinical presentation and treatment of a 15-yr-old high school football player who sustained a displaced, distal femoral epiphyseal Salter II fracture. Primary treatment consisted of nonmanipulative, nonweight bearing knee immobilization. The treatment resulted in malunion, pain, decreased range of motion and physical deformity; therefore, the patient sought a second opinion. On physical exam, the displacement and rotational deformity of the fracture site were unacceptable. The fracture was treated 20 days post-injury via open reduction with internal fixation. On follow-up, the athlete demonstrated radiographic healing, normal physical exam, and no significant leg length discrepancy or deformity. The athlete successfully returned to full competitive sport activity.     

MR arthrography of elbow: evaluation of the ulnar collateral ligament of elbow

 Objective. The purpose of this study was to evaluate ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injury of the elbow in throwing athletes by MRI and MR arthrography. Design. Ten elbows of throwing athletes were examined on both plain MRI and MR saline arthrography and the injuries subsequently surgically proven. Spin-echo (SE) T1-weighted and fast SE T2-weighted coronal images were obtained. Results. The UCL was unclear in all ten cases on T1-weighted MRI. In five cases an avulsion fracture was also found on T1-weighted MRI. On T2-weighted MRI, abnormal high-intensity areas were identified in or around the UCL. On T2-weighted MR arthrography images, extracapsular high-intensity areas, which represent extracapsular leakage, were found in four of five cases with avulsion fracture. At surgery, all these four cases showed avulsion fractures with instability; the other case had a fracture but it was stable and adherent to the humerus. On T2-weighted MR arthrography images, an extracapsular high-intensity area was found in one of the five cases without avulsion fracture. At surgery this patient had a complete tear of the UCL itself. Conclusion. MR arthrography provided additional information for evaluating the degree of UCL injury.     

Sports-related epiphyseal injuries of the lower extremity. An epidemiologic study.

Sports-related epiphyseal injuries in children and adolescents have been becoming more prevalent during recent years. We report 85 patients with epiphyseal fractures of the lower extremity treated in our hospital during the last twenty years, of which 60 were males and 25 females with an average age of 12.6 years (range 4 to 17 years of age). The injuries were sustained during soccer in 28% and during alpine skiing in 26% of the cases, of which the former was responsible for most of the injuries reported in males and the latter for those in females. The most frequently seen localizations were in the distal tibial epiphysis (31 cases), followed by the distal fibula (17) and the proximal tibial epiphysis (15). Of the reported 85 epiphyseal fractures 30 were Salter-Harris type I injuries, 25 type II, 8 type III and 11 were type IV fractures, while 11 were avulsion fractures. Of these patients, 56% were treated surgically, while conservative treatment was chosen for 44% of the patients. Of the 49 patients available for follow-up, complications were documented in 9 instances, including 3 leg length discrepancies, 4 axis deviations, one avascular necrosis of the femoral head and one case of osteomyelitis, of which 6 required corrective surgery.     

Fractures of the elbow and forearm

Fractures and dislocations of the elbow usually occur secondary to indirect trauma. In the adult, fractures of the distal humerus almost always involve the condyles. Fractures of the radial head and neck may be subtle, and the appearance of secondary signs, such as the elevated fat pads from an elbow joint effusion, may be diagnostically useful. Dislocations of the elbow can be associated with fractures, such as those involving the ulnar coronoid process. In children, the presence of epiphyseal and apophyseal ossification centers can confuse the inexperienced observer in the setting of elbow trauma. Osteochondral injury may be difficult to identify without adjunctive imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Soft tissue injury at the elbow is also well characterized by MR imaging. Fractures of a single forearm bone may occur in isolation, usually due to a direct blow, but these are usually associated with fracture of displacement of the other bone in that forearm.     

质子脂肪抑制序列在四肢隐性骨折中的诊断价值

目的探讨质子脂肪抑制序列(PDFASAT)在四肢隐性骨折中的诊断价值。方法31例四肢关节外伤患者在伤后45d内均行X线平片及多序列高场强(1．5T)MR检查，检查序列包括快速SE T1WI、T2WI，PDF ASAT等。受伤部位为膝关节21例，髋关节6例，肘关节1例，肩关节2例，踝关节1例。结果31例X线平片均未见明显骨折征象。MR检查发现：21例(21／31)膝关节受伤病例中腓骨近端隐性骨折10例，胫骨近端4例，股骨髁7例；6例(6／31)髋关节受伤病例中粗隆问隐性骨折2例，股骨颈隐性骨折2例，髋臼隐性骨折2例；1例(1／31)肘关节受伤病例显示肱骨远端隐性骨折；2例(2／31)肩关节受伤病例显示肱骨近端隐性骨折；1例(1／31)踝关节受伤病例显示腓骨远端隐性骨折；MR信号主要表现为T1WI、T1WI呈细线状、条带状低信号影，PDFASAT呈更清晰锐利的细线状、条带状高信号影，PDFASAT序列更易认识辨别。结论MRI能发现早期至慢性期隐性骨折的存在，如临床强烈提示骨折可能而X线检查阴性者，MR检查的PDFASAT序列是明确诊断的最佳序列。     

Radiographic diagnosis of fracture-separation of the entire distal humeral epiphysis

Twenty children with fracture-separation of the entire distal humeral epiphysis have been reported. The key to the radiographic diagnosis is the relationship between the radius and capitellum. A line extending from the shaft of the radius will always pass through the capitellum regardless of the position in which the radiograph is obtained. Posteromedial displacement of the humeral fracture fragment together with the ulna and the radius most commonly occurs. The injury must be distinguished from dislocation of the elbow, fracture of the lateral condyle, and supracondylar fracture of the distal humerus.     

Complementary role of wrist arthrography in non-union of scaphoid fractures

Plain radiographs and wrist arthrography of 11 patients with non-united fractures of the scaphoid were retrospectively studied. The arthrographic feature of non-union was found to be opacification of the fracture line and, secondly, of the midcarpal compartment, whereas in patients with fibrous or cartilaginous union no opacification of the fracture line was obtained. There was no single plain radiographic feature that could distinguish non-union from fibrous or cartilaginous union.     

低场磁共振在儿童肘关节创伤中的应用

目的：探讨磁共振成像技术（MRI）在儿童肘关节外伤中的应用。方法：我院儿童肘关节外伤患者,x线未示明确骨折而症状明显,共50例。行MR检查归纳其MRI影像学表现。结果：骨骺骨折13例,关节软骨骨折5例,骨挫伤19例,正常13例。结论：MRI以其独特的成像特点,能清晰显示骨骺、软骨、软组织等,能准确判断儿童肘关节外伤的性质和范围。对治疗方案的确定及愈后有着重要指导作用。     

骨纤维异常增殖症的影像学诊断

目的：进一步探讨骨纤维异常增殖症（FDB）的平片、CT、MRI及ECT的表现及诊断价值。方法：对经手术或活检证实的37例患的平片、CT、MR及ECT进行回顾性分析。结果：FDB表现为膨胀性骨质破坏或玻璃样密度，破坏区为不同程度的骨质增生、钙化、囊变、出血，累及骨骺或骺软骨，可引起患肢缩短。结论：大多数FDB具有较典型的影像学表现。CT检查在FDB的诊断和鉴别诊断中有重要价值。     

Normal maturation of the distal femoral epiphyseal cartilage: age-related changes at MR imaging

PURPOSE: To determine how signal intensity in the cartilaginous distal part of the femoral epiphysis varies with (a) age, (b) sex, and (c) distribution to the medial or lateral condyle on magnetic resonance (MR) images. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixty-six sagittal T2-weighted or inversion-recovery MR images of the distal femoral epiphysis in children aged 2 months to 5 years 5 months were evaluated. Epiphyses were categorized into five types on the basis of progressive signal intensity changes within the epiphyseal cartilage along the weight-bearing region and posterior condyles. Epiphyseal type was compared with age, sex, and distribution of signal intensity changes within the condyle. RESULTS: In early infancy, epiphyseal cartilage was homogeneous. During the 2nd year, signal intensity along the weight-bearing region decreased. With further advancing age, signal intensity in the posterior femoral condyles increased and became progressively more focal. The increase in epiphyseal grade correlated with age for both the medial and the lateral femoral condyles (r = 0.71 and r = 0.77, respectively; P < .001). There was no significant difference in epiphyseal changes between boys and girls or between medial and lateral condyles. CONCLUSION: There is normal age-related variation in MR imaging signal intensity within the cartilaginous epiphysis of the distal femur. This may be related to weight bearing and epiphyseal maturation and should not be confused with disease.     

Late diagnosis of a McFarland fracture: imaging and treatment

McFarland fractures represent a type of oblique medial malleolar fracture in children that can be challenging to diagnose and treat. A 14-year-old junior league soccer player with a Salter Harris type IV McFarland fracture presented late, as the initial routine two views radiological assessment failed to reveal a clear fracture line. The addition of a mortise ankle view led to the correct diagnosis and subsequent MRI findings guided nonsurgical treatment with an excellent outcome. The debate between obtaining two or three views in closed pediatric ankle injuries according to the so-called Ottawa rules and the usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the decision making for the choice of treatment of McFarland fractures are discussed in this case report.     

MRI of Little Leaguer's shoulder

The MRI appearance of 'Little Leaguer's shoulder' has not been previously reported in the radiology literature. Purported etiologies include proximal humeral epiphyseolysis, osteochondrosis of the proximal humeral epiphysis, stress fracture of the proximal humeral epiphyseal plate, and rotational stress fracture of the proximal humeral epiphyseal plate. We describe magnetic resonance imaging findings in four patients and review the literature.