A cadaveric study on the anatomy of the deltoid insertion and its relationship to the deltopectoral approach to the proximal humerus

Elevation of the deltoid insertion (DI) has been recommended, but little is known about its anatomy or importance for deltoid function. The purpose of this study is to determine the dimensions of the DI with specific reference to the deltopectoral approach. The deltoid was exposed and detached at its origin in 36 cadaveric shoulders. The morphology of the DI was documented, and its relationship with the pectoralis major insertion and the axillary and radial nerves was recorded. The anterior, middle, and posterior deltoid muscle fibers entered into the DI in a V-shaped tendinous confluence with a broad posterior band and a narrow separate anterior band, which accounted for the anterior one fifth of the DI (0.44 cm). The deltoid insertion was separated from the pectoralis major insertion by as little as 2 mm in 31 of 36 specimens. The distance between the axillary nerve and the DI averaged 5.6 cm anteriorly and 4.5 cm posteriorly. The distance between the radial nerve and posterior deltoid insertion averaged 2.4 cm proximally and 1.6 cm distally. Exposure during the deltopectoral approach is most limited by the close proximity of the deltoid and pectoralis major insertions. Our study would suggest that partial anterior DI release (greater than one fifth) could compromise the anterior deltoid. The axillary and radial nerves are not at significant risk when operating in the region of the anterior DI.     

经三角肌前外侧入路人工肱骨头置换治疗老年Neer三、四部分肱骨近端骨折

目的探讨经三角肌前外侧入路人工肱骨头置换治疗老年Neer三、四部分骨折的可行性、方法及临床治疗效果。方法对12例60岁以上Neer三、四部分肱骨近端骨折患者采用经三角肌前外侧入路人工肱骨头置换术治疗。结果 12例均获随访,时间12～25(17±6.2)个月。ASES评分为77～91(87.1±5.8)分。肩关节活动度为:主动前屈上举95°～148°(130°±22.1°),主动体侧内旋角度T8～L5水平,主动体侧外旋角度25°～42°(35.2°±5.5°)。无神经损伤、异位骨化、大结节再次移位。1例伴肩关节前脱位者(Neer四部分骨折)游离脱位肱骨头取出困难,延长了手术时间并增加了术中出血。结论人工肱骨头置换是治疗老年Neer三、四部分肱骨近端骨折有效方法,经三角肌前外侧入路具有暴露直接、组织损伤小、术中出血少等优点,但对于伴有肩关节脱位的骨折,利用此切口有一定局限性,不建议使用。     

The position of the axillary nerve in the deltoid muscle: A cadaveric study

In 134 deltoid preparations taken from 67 fresh cadavers we examined the position of the axillary nerve in relation to the upper border of the muscle. The vertical distances from the upper deltoid border to the nerve in 17 of 67 cadavers was less than 4 cm in both shoulders. The minimal distance, measured from the mid-middle portion of the deltoid to the axillary nerve, was 2 cm. There was a significant negative correlation between the deltoid ratio (width/ length) and the vertical distance, measured in all examined sites. The shorter the deltoid length the greater the danger of damaging the nerve in the short distance during surgical splitting of the muscle.     

A modified deltoid splitting approach with axillary nerve bundle mobilization for proximal humeral fracture fixation

IntroductionThe deltopectoral and the deltoid splitting approach are commonly used for the treatment of proximal humeral fractures. While the deltopectoral approach requires massive soft tissue devascularization, the deltoid splitting approach needs an additional skipped incision to avoid axillary nerve injury. The purpose of this study was to describe a modified anterolateral deltoid splitting approach with axillary nerve bundle mobilization in the treatment of proximal humeral fractures and to assess its radiologic and clinical outcomes.Patients and methodsTwenty-two consecutive patients with proximal humeral fractures were treated with minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis by using a modified anterolateral deltoid splitting approach with axillary nerve bundle mobilization. The patients were divided into two groups: 10 patients of Neer type 2 or 3 fractures vs. 12 patients of Neer type 4 fractures. The mean age of the study population was 63.5 years (range: 30–80 years). Six patients had valgus impacted fractures, and nine had fractures with medial comminution.ResultsFracture union was achieved in all cases. The mean time to union was 8.6 weeks (range: 6–12 weeks). Major complications, such as avascular necrosis of the humeral head and varus collapse at the fracture site, were not observed. No patients had clinically detectable sensory deficits in the axillary nerve distribution or paralysis of the anterior deltoid muscle. The mean neck-shaft angle at the final follow-up was 136.9° (range, 115°–159°). The mean visual analog score for patient satisfaction was 9.1 (range, 6–10), and the mean Neer scores were 93.5 (range, 84–100). There were no significant differences between the two groups with respect to radiologic and clinical outcomes except Neer scores: 95.8 (range: 86–100) in Neer type 2 or 3 fractures and 91.7 (range: 84–99) in Neer type 4 fractures.ConclusionThe use of a modified anterolateral deltoid splitting approach with axillary nerve bundle mobilization in the treatment of proximal humeral fractures yielded excellent outcomes. This approach is a useful alternative to the deltopectoral or the deltoid splitting approaches in the treatment of proximal humeral fractures.     

The position of the axillary nerve in the deltoid muscle. A cadaveric study

In 134 deltoid preparations taken from 67 fresh cadavers we examined the position of the axillary nerve in relation to the upper border of the muscle. The vertical distances from the upper deltoid border to the nerve in 17 of 67 cadavers was less than 4 cm in both shoulders. The minimal distance, measured from the mid-middle portion of the deltoid to the axillary nerve, was 2 cm. There was a significant negative correlation between the deltoid ratio (width/length) and the vertical distance, measured in all examined sites. The shorter the deltoid length the greater the danger of damaging the nerve in the short distance during surgical splitting of the muscle.     

The effect of partial deltoid ligament injuries on the external rotation stability: A cadaveric study

BackgroundThe anterior and posterior part of the deltoid ligament have different functions during ankle flexion motion. Partial ligament injuries have been demonstrated in previous clinical reports. However, the efficacy of external rotation stress test in partial injured cases is unavailable till now.MethodsThirty-two fresh cadaveric specimens were included and allocated into two destabilization groups. In the first group, the anterior portion of deltoid ligament (DL) and syndesmotic ligament were sequentially severed, while in the second group, the posterior portion of DL and syndesmotic ligament were sequentially severed. Mortise view radiographs were taken after each destabilization stage when the ankles were placed at plantarflexion and dorsiflexion positions and stressed in standard external rotation force. The medial clear space (MCS) and talar tilt (TT) angle were measured and compared among different destabilization stages.ResultsWhen the ankles were placed at neutral position, the TT significantly increased in all destabilization stages. The MCS significantly increased after the partial deltoid ligament ruptures only with presence of syndesmotic ligament injuries. There was no significant difference of MCS at plantarflexion for all stages of destabilization if the anterior portion of DL is preserved. Similarly, no significant increase of MCS was detected at dorsiflexion if the posterior portion of DL and posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament are intact.ConclusionPartial DL rupture causes ankle rotational instability at different ankle joint positions, especially when combined with syndesmotic injuries. The neutral position is recommended for diagnosis of partial DL ruptures under external rotation stress.     

Extensile approach to the anterolateral surface of the humerus and the radial nerve

A proposed approach to the anterolateral surface of the humeral shaft that would allow for exploration of the radial nerve was studied in 30 cadaver arms. The incision starts proximally along the posterior border of the deltoid muscle and extends anteriorly and distally over the lateral border of the biceps muscle. A deep dissection is made in the internervous plane between the deltoid and the triceps muscles proximally and between the longitudinally split fibers of the brachialis muscle distally. The approach provides access to the anterolateral surface of the humerus up to the level of the axillary nerve and the posterior circumflex humeral vessels. The insertion of the deltoid muscle into the anterior border of the humerus is preserved and the radial nerve is protected by the triceps muscle proximally and by the retracted lateral portion of the brachialis muscle distally. The entire course of the radial nerve in the arm can be exposed. Proximally, the radial nerve can be exposed by elevating the lateral head of the triceps muscle from the humerus. Distally, the radial nerve can be exposed between the brachioradialis and the brachialis muscles. A plate can be applied on the anterolateral surface of the humerus without having to elevate the firmly attached anterior deltoid insertion.     

The anterolateral approach to the proximal humerus for nonunions and delayed unions

Nonunions of proximal humerus fractures can be disabling as a result of pain, deformity and instability, and are often found in geriatric patients with poor bone quality. There are relatively few studies examining the treatment of nonunions of the proximal third of the humerus and the ideal treatment and surgical approach remains unclear. This case series reports the successful use of the anterolateral acromial approach for treatment of the symptomatic proximal third humerus nonunions in a geriatric group of patients with clear challenges as a result of patient comorbidities and bone quality.     

Different effect of percutaneous plate insertion via anteromedial vs anterolateral approach on intracompartmental pressure of the leg: A cadaveric study

BackgroundCurrently Minimally Invasive Plate Osteosynthesis (MIPO) technique for tibial shaft fracture management has gained wide attention. However, an increased intracompartmental pressure after the plate insertion may result in postoperative acute compartment syndrome. We reported the difference of immediate effect of percutaneous plate insertion using 2 approaches of MIPO technique on anterior compartment pressure of the legs.Materials and methodsEight soft cadaveric legs (one female and three males) without previous history of skeletal trauma or surgery were infused with normal saline to create the sustained intracompartmental pressure of 20 mm Hg in all four compartments. The Synthes^® 4.5 mm 11-hole Narrow Locking Compression Plate was inserted via anteromedial and anterolateral approach. Anterior compartment pressure was measured by portable digital monitoring device through side-port needle (Stryker^® Intracompartmental Monitoring Device) before and after plate insertion for each approach.ResultsBy using anteromedial approach, a mean of anterior compartment pressure was increased by 0.375 mm Hg after plate insertion (5 of 8 legs had no change in pressure and the remaining 3 resulted in 1 mm Hg pressure elevation). For anterolateral plate insertion, all of the 8 legs had an elevation of anterior compartment pressure with a mean of 3.5 mm Hg (ranged from 2 to 6 mm Hg).ConclusionsWhen both approaches were compared to each other, the anterolateral plate insertion resulted in higher intracompartmental pressure elevation of the anterior compartment than the anteromedial approach. Surgeon should be more aware of acute compartment syndrome when considering the anterolateral approach in treating close tibial fracture. However, in patients with suspected acute compartment syndrome, close observation and continuous monitoring of the intracompartmental pressure is still imperative for all healthcare provider.     

Proximal humerus fractures: a comparative biomechanical analysis of intra and extramedullary implants

Introduction The biomechanical stability of a newly developed humerus nail (Sirus™) for the treatment of fractures of the proximal humerus was analyzed in comparison to established systems. In total, three randomized groups were formed (n = 4 pairs) from 12 matched pairs of human cadaver humeri. Materials and methods All intact bones were mechanically characterized by five subsequent load cycles under bending and torsional loading. The bending moment at the osteotomy was 7.5 N m the torsional moment was 8.3 N m over the hole specimen length. Loading was consistently initiated at the distal epiphysis and the deformation at the distal epiphysis was continuously recorded. Prior to implant reinforcement, a defect of 5 mm was created to simulate an unstable subcapital humerus fracture. For paired comparison, one humerus of each pair was stabilized with the Sirus proximal humerus nail while the counterpart was stabilized by a reference implant. In detail, the following groups were created: Sirus versus Proximal humerus nail (PHN) with spiral blade (group I); Sirus versus PHILOS plate (group II); Sirus versus 4.5 mm AO T-plate (group III). Results The Sirus nail demonstrated significantly higher stiffness values compared to the reference implants for both bending and torsional loading. The following distal epiphyseal displacements were recorded for a bending moment of 7.5 N m at the osteotomy: Sirus I: 8.8 mm, II: 8.4 mm, III: 7.7 mm (range 6.9–10.9), PHN 21.1 mm (range 15.7–25.2) (P = 0.005), PHILOS plate 27.5 mm (range 21.6–35.8) (P < 0.001), 4.5 AO T-plate 26.3 mm (range 24.3–33.9) (P = 0.01). The rotations corresponding to 8.3 N m torsional moment were: Sirus I: 9.1°, II: 9.3°, III: 10.6° (range 7.5–12.2), PHN 13.5° (range 10.3–15.6) (P = 0.158), PHILOS plate 15.6° (range 13.7–20.8) (P = 0.007), 4.5 AO T-Platte 14.1° (range 11.5–19.7) (P = 0.158). Conclusion The intramedullary load carriers were biomechanically superior when compared to the plating systems in the fracture model presented here. Supplementary, the Sirus Nail showed higher stiffness values than the PHN. However, the latter are gaining in importance due to the possibility of minimal invasive implantation. Whether this will be associated with functional advantages requires further clinical investigation.     

The Giuliani muscle splitting and nerve-sparing anterolateral transabdominal approach to the kidney

We report on an anterolateral transabdominal approach to the kidney, which is appropriate when vascular control is important (such as, radical nephrectomy, traumatic renal injury, and difficult nephrectomy). The technique splits muscles and spares nerves and that allows good exposure both downward as far as the aortic bifurcation and upward as far as the diaphragm. This approach has been used in 42 patients during the last 20 months (mean follow-up, 6.5). In all these patients the active control of the abdominal wall muscles has been completely preserved, while, during the period from 1974 to 1994, about half of 434 patients who underwent the same approach, but with muscle and nerve transection, showed abdominal wall relaxation.     

Surgical approach for pericardiectomy: a comparative study between median sternotomy and left anterolateral thoracotomy

Pericardiectomy is the definitive treatment for constrictive pericarditis but the best surgical approach remains controversial. In this study we compared the results of pericardiectomy performed on 36 patients with constrictive pericarditis between 1995 and 2001. Pericardiectomy was performed by median sternotomy in 15 patients and by left anterolateral thoracotomy in 21 patients. All patients were reviewed at 6 weeks post operatively. Both groups of patients were similar in age, sex distribution, NYHA shortness of breath status, aetiology, presenting symptoms and duration of symptoms. Mortality was similar in the two groups with three deaths (14.2%) in the thoracotomy group and two deaths (13.3%) in the median sternotomy group. NYHA status improved in both thoracotomy (3.0+/-0.8 to 1.6+/-0.7; P=3.3x10(-6)) and median sternotomy (2.9+/-0.7 to 1.5+/-0.6; P=2.8x10(-5)) groups. The degree of improvement was not significant between the two groups (P=0.63). In addition ionotropic support and postoperative hospital stay were similar between the two groups. There was a higher incidence of wound infections (23.8 versus 6.6%; P=0.13) and pulmonary complications (23.8 versus 13.3%; P=0.33) associated with thoracotomy. In conclusion pericardiectomy improves NYHA status in all patients and mortality rates are similar in both the approaches.     

The anterolateral intertubercular approach to the shoulder with osteotomy of the lesser tubercle of the humerus

Summary The authors propose an original route of approach to the shoulder that allows direct access to this articulation. Thanks to this route, complex fractures of the proximal end of the humerus can be treated by ostosynthesis or prosthesis, and shoulder arthroses, whether centered or not by prosthesis. Two technical methods are used: first, the creation of an anterior digastric trapezio-deltoid muscle flap, and then, in cases of elective prosthetic surgery, osteotomy of the lesser tubercle to open the articulation and provide direct access to the humeral head and the glenoid. The patient is installed in the semiseated position, with the apex of the shoulder projecting widely from the operating table. The incision is anterolateral, in the direction of the fibers of the deltoid and measures 8–10 cm from the anterolateral angle of the acromion (ALAA), which constitutes a convenient surgical landmark. One third of the incision is proximal; the other two-thirds are distal. The trapezio-deltoid digastric muscle flap is created: the deltoid is divided in the direction of its fibers between the anterior and middle bundles, straddling the ALAA. The acromial periosteum is incised vertically. The incision is extended upwards into the trapezius. The digastric muscle flap thus created is reflected forward together with the coracoacromial ligament. An acromioplasty can be performed. This approach by itself allows access to the upper end of the humerus in complex fractures and allows osteosynthesis if called for. In cases of elective prosthetic surgery, and if the rotator cuff is intact, complete access to the articulation is obtained by osteotomy of the lesser tubercle in a plane parallel to its humeral base. This allows reflection of the subscapularis muscle with the tubercular fragment and opening of the articulation. Retropulsion of the elbow and lateral rotation displays the humeral head, which is osteotomized, and in this way access to the glenoid is immediate. The different stages of prosthetic surgery can then be performed. Closure is made most simply by reattachment of the lesser tubercle with a stout transosseous suture. The trapezio-deltoid digastric flap is closed by interrupted sutures without tension.      

肩外侧三角肌入路治疗肱骨近端Neer三、四部分骨折

目的探讨肩关节外侧三角肌入路治疗肱骨近端Neer三、四部分骨折的疗效。方法采用肩外侧三角肌外侧入路手术治疗31例肱骨近端Neer三、四部分骨折患者。结果患者均获得随访,时间11~29个月。骨折临床愈合时间11~21周。末次随访肩关节活动度:前屈131.6°±3.9°,后伸42.5°±2.6°,外展89.2°±2.6°,内收36.6°±2.8°。末次随访肩关节Constant评分76.7分±12.3分;未发生三角肌萎缩、肱骨头坏死情况。结论肩关节外侧三角肌入路是手术治疗肱骨近端严重骨折的良好入路,可取得理想的疗效。     

Incidence and predictors of radial nerve palsy with the anterolateral brachialis splitting approach to the humeral shaft

Purpose: Fractures of the humeral shaft are common and account for 3%e5% of all orthopedic injuries. This study aims to estimate the incidence of radial nerve palsy and its outcome when the anterior approach is employed and to analyze the predictive factors. Methods: The study was performed in the department of orthopaedics unit of a tertiary care trauma referral center. Patients who underwent surgery for acute fractures and nonunions of humerus shaft through an anterior approach from January 2007 to December 2012 were included. We retrospectively analyzed medical records, including radiographs and discharge summaries, demographic data, surgical procedures prior to our index surgery, AO fracture type and level of fracture or nonunion, experience of the operating surgeon, time of the day when surgery was performed, and radial nerve palsy with its recovery condition. The level of humerus shaft fracture or nonunion was divided into upper third, middle third and lower third. Irrespective of prior surgeries done elsewhere, the first surgery done in our institute through an anterior approach was considered as the index surgery and subsequent surgical exposures were considered as secondary procedures. Results: Of 85 patients included, 19 had preoperative radial nerve palsy. Eleven (16%) patients developed radial nerve palsy after our index procedure. Surgeons who have two or less than two years of surgical experience were 9.2 times more likely to induce radial nerve palsy (p=0.002). Patients who had surgery between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m. were about 8 times more likely to have palsy (p=0.004). The rest risk factor is AO type A fractures, whose incidence of radial nerve palsy was 1.3 times as compared with type B fractures (p=0.338). For all the 11 patients, one was lost to follow-up and the others recovered within 6 months. Conclusion: Contrary to our expectations, secondary procedures and prior multiple surgeries with failed implants and poor soft tissue were not predictive factors of postoperative deficit. From our study, we also conclude that radial nerve recovery can be reasonably expected in all patients with a postoperative palsy following the anterolateral approach.     

Anatomical variability of the anterolateral thigh flap perforators between sexes: a cadaveric study

Background

Anterolateral thigh flap (ALTF) has gain popularity as a workhorse flap in the management of simple as well as complex tissue defects. The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in ALTF’s perforators’ location in male and female human cadavers.

Methods

The study involved 30 fresh human cadavers of both sexes. A total of 60 flaps were examined. The flaps were raised as originally designed. After location of vessels, the distance from the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) to subsequent perforators was measured. Also, the kind of the perforator, its diameter and origin were marked. Perforators were designated according to Yu’s classification (A, B, and C). The perforators were divided into thin (<0.5 mm), medium (0.5–1 mm), and thick (>1 mm). Ratio of the ASIS–patella distance to the distance of a given perforator from the ASIS (AP rate) was calculated.

Results

The mean AP rate (perforator location) was different in both sexes. Mean AP rate in men was calculated as 0.498 ± 0.117, and in women, 0.559 ± 0.114. Differences in AP rate between female and male were statistically significant (t = ?3.144; p < 0.002). Mean flap thickness was 3.65 cm in women and 1.17 cm in men (t = ?14.444; p < 0.00001). In men, 63 perforators originated from descending branch, and seven perforators originated from oblique branch. In women, there were 67 and one, respectively.

Conclusions

In men, perforators are located closer to the ASIS in comparison to women. Clinically significant perforators (Φ > 0.5 mm), in majority of cases, occur in A and B positions. Thickness of the flap was higher in women. The oblique branch was more common in men.     

The extradural extended eyebrow approach: A cadaveric feasibility study

IntroductionExtradural anterior clinoidectomy (eAC) is key to expose the paraclinoid region. Several authors have pointed limitations of performing an eAC through a supraorbital craniotomy. In this article, we aim to provide educational material and discuss the technical nuances to successfully perform an eAC throughout a modification of the supraorbital approach, the extradural extended eyebrow approach (xEBA + eAC).MethodsFour embalmed heads were used for anatomic dissection and perform the xEBA + eAC. Additionally, one head was used for a video demonstration of the surgical approach.ResultsThe anterior clinoid process was successfully removed, and the ophthalmic artery and paraclinoid region were exposed in all specimens. Drilling the sphenoid wing until exposing the meningo-orbital band and further interdural dissection are vital steps to expose the anterior clinoid process. Removal of the anterior clinoid process can be simplified in 3 osteotomies, including the optic canal unroofing, detachment from the lateral pillar, and drilling of the optic strut. Sectioning of the distal dural ring facilitates the mobilization of the internal carotid artery and the surgical exposure of the ophthalmic artery.ConclusionsxEBA + eAC is a technically feasible approach that provides exposure to the paraclinoid region, along with anterior and middle cranial fossa.     

Newcastle approach to the elbow,a cadaveric study

Aim  

The aim of the current study was to assess the amount of the distal humerus articular surface exposed through the Newcastle approach, a posterior triceps preserving exposure of the elbow joint.     

肩峰下前外侧小切口入路在肱骨近端骨折治疗中的临床应用

[目的]评价应用肩峰下前外侧小切口入路治疗肱骨近端骨折的方法和临床疗效。[方法]2006年12月-2008年12月运用肩峰下前外侧小切口入路使用锁定钢板治疗42例肱骨近端骨折,其中男25例,女17例,根据AO/OTA分型,A2型5例,A3型11例,B1型7例,B2型12例,C1型3例,C2型4例。经肩前外侧小切口入路,在肱骨大结节顶端下1.5 cm左右,做一3 cm左右横切口,纵行分离三角肌,探及骨折,直视下间接和直接复位。经骨表面肌肉下隧道向骨折远端插入锁定钢板,于钢板远端做纵行切口,远近端用锁定螺钉固定。比较不同时期病例的切口长度、手术时间、出血量、骨折复位及术后1年Neer评分。[结果]42例均在小切口中完成手术,初期和后期病例切口长度分别为(4.5±1.0)cm和(4.0±0.7)cm;手术时间为(60±14.1)min和(45.4±8.7)min;出血量为(100±20.6)ml和(70.2±16.8)ml;Neer评分为(80.2±5.4)分和(86.0±6.0)分,达到影像学的解剖复位分别为6、16例。统计学分析显示以上几项指标不同时期比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。[结论]严格把握适应证和规范的手术技巧,肩峰下前外侧小切口入路可以很好的完成肱骨近端骨折的手术治疗,可以获得满意的临床效果,在大多数的肱骨近端骨折的手术治疗中可以作为首选的手术入路。