Blood lead in Swedish police officers

BACKGROUND: Shooting with lead-containing ammunition in firing ranges is a well-known source of lead exposure in adults, and police officers may be at risk of lead intoxication. More stringent national lead regulations stimulated a survey of blood lead (PbB) in Swedish police officers with regular shooting habits. METHODS: Police officers considered as the most active shooters on and/or off duty responded to a questionnaire about health, lifestyle, shooting habits, and potential lead exposure. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for PbB and a multivariate regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: The mean PbB in male officers (n = 75) was 0.24 mumol/L (5.0 micrograms/dL); range 0.05-0.88 mumol/L (1.0-18.2 micrograms/dL), and in female officers (n = 3) it was even lower (0.18 mumol/L; 3.7 micrograms/dL). For both sexes combined, a positive correlation (r = 0.55; P < 0.001) of PbB with the number of bullets annually fired both on and off duty was observed, and this finding remained in a multiple regression analysis including age, smoking habits, and latency from last shooting exercise. DISCUSSION: In conclusion, occupational and recreational lead exposure from firing ranges still seems to be a source of lead exposure in Swedish police officers, but it no longer appears to be a health risk. Lead-free communication and well-ventilated indoor firing ranges may have been decisive for this encouraging finding.     

Work stress in aging police officers

Data are sparse regarding the impact of psychosocial work stress on the health and well-being of aging workers, even for employees working in high-stress occupations, such as law enforcement. To improve our understanding of this issue in older workers, we assessed and characterized work stress, coping strategies, and stress-related health outcomes in a sample of police officers aged 50 years and older (n = 105). The most important risk factors associated with officers' perceived work stress were maladaptive coping behaviors (e.g., excessive drinking or problem gambling) (odds ratio [OR], 4.95; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.11 to 11.6) and exposure to critical incidents (e.g., shootings) (OR, 3.84; 95% CI, 1.71 to 8.65). In turn, perceived work stress was significantly associated with anxiety (OR, 6.84; 95% CI, 2.81 to 16.65), depression (OR, 9.27; 95% CI, 3.81 to 22.54), somatization (OR, 5.74; 95% CI, 2.47 to 13.33), posttraumatic stress symptoms (OR, 2.89; 95% CI, 1.29 to 6.47), symptoms of "burnout" (OR, 5.93; 95% CI, 2.54 to 13.86), chronic back pain (OR, = 3.55; 95% CI, 1.57 to 8.06), alcohol abuse (OR, 3.24; 95% CI, 1.45 to 7.22), and inappropriately aggressive behavior (OR, 4.00; 95% CI, 1.34 to 11.88). These data suggest that older workers in high-stress jobs may be at increased risk for work stress-related health problems, especially if they rely on risky health behaviors to cope with stress. Given the size of the rapidly aging US workforce and the likelihood that many are employed in high-stress jobs, interventions are urgently needed to address this emerging public health issue.     

Musculoskeletal problems and driving in police officers

The Occupational Health Department of a rural police force inthe UK had concerns regarding sickness absence levels due tomusculoskeletal problems, particularly in officers who droveas part of their job. It was decided to conduct an interviewsurvey comparing two groups of police officers with differinglevels of exposure to driving, recording sickness absence andprevalence data related due to musculoskeletal troubles. Theresults indicate that exposure to car driving, both in termsof distance and hours driven, had a significant effect on self-reportedlow back trouble. Officers whose job mainly involved drivingalso experienced more low back trouble over the last 12 monthsthan those whose job primarily involved sitting (not driving),standing and lifting tasks. Police motorcyclists had significantlyhigher prevalence figures for reported shoulder trouble thanpolice car drivers.     

Hepatitis B markers in Lancashire police officers

A total of 284 Lancashire police officers each with a minimum of 5 years experience was tested for evidence of hepatitis B infection. None was hepatitis B surface antigen positive (HBsAg). Three were positive for both antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) and HBsAg (anti-HBs). Five were positive for anti-HBc alone. Thus the overall prevalence was 2.8% which is within the range reported for blood donors in the UK. There was no association with working in the drug squad or custody office but there was a higher prevalence in those who had worked in the scene-of-crime's squad. However, the numbers were small, and of this group of 28 officers, 2 of the 3 with detectable hepatitis B markers were positive for anti-HBc alone. Therefore for police officers in mixed rural/urban areas of the UK, routine administration of hepatitis B vaccine is not justified although special consideration should be given to those working in selected groups. Further studies are required to ascertain whether there may be an increased risk for police officers working in conurbations.     

Cancer incidence among Ontario police officers

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) published a report in 1995 suggesting the possibility of increased incidence of testicular cancer, leukemia, and cancers of the brain, eye, and skin among police officers working with traffic radar. NIOSH recommended epidemiologic study of the issue. This report presents the results of a retrospective cohort cancer incidence study among 22,197 officers employed by 83 Ontario police departments. The standardized incidence ratio (SIR) for all tumor sites was 0.90 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.83–0.98). There was an increased incidence of testicular cancer (SIR = 1.3, 90%CI = 0.9–1.8) and melanoma skin cancer (SIR = 1.45, 90%CI = 1.1–1.9). These anatomical sites might absorb energy from radar units, but at this time the author has no information about individual exposures to radar emissions, and it is not possible to draw etiologic conclusions. Nested case-control studies are planned to assess individual radar exposures. Am. J. Ind. Med. 34:157–162, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Stress in police officers: a study of the origins,prevalence and severity of stress-related symptoms within a county police force

BACKGROUND: High levels of stress-related illness are causing concern across industry. Against a background of impending legislative moves to try to improve this situation, there is a need to identify key work-related stressors. Police work tends to be regarded as inherently stressful because of the personal risk of exposure to confrontation and violence and the day-to-day involvement in a variety of traumatic incidents. As a result, high levels of stress-related symptoms might be expected in this population. OBJECTIVE: To examine the sources of stress-related symptoms within police officers and measure the prevalence of significant associated mental ill-health. METHOD: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey of a population of 1206 police officers was performed to assess levels of strain associated with a series of potential home and work related stressors. Participants were then split into low and high scoring groups on the basis of a General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) threshold score in order to identify those stressors most associated with mental ill-health effects. RESULTS: Occupational stressors ranking most highly within the population were not specific to policing, but to organizational issues such as the demands of work impinging upon home life, lack of consultation and communication, lack of control over workload, inadequate support and excess workload in general. The high scoring group constituted 41% of the population and differed significantly from those with low scores in perception of all stressors, ranking both personal and occupational stressors more highly, and from personality constraints appeared significantly more 'stress-prone'. A significant association between gender and mental ill-health was found, with females more likely to score more highly on the GHQ than males. CONCLUSION: This study confirms previous findings of organizational culture and workload as the key issues in officer stress. Given that the degree of symptomatology appears to be worsening, management action is required. Further research is indicated within the police population into a possible increased susceptibility in female officers.     

Occupational exposure to airborne lead in Brazilian police officers

Shooting with lead-containing ammunition in indoor firing ranges is a known source of lead exposure in adults. Police officers may be at risk of lead intoxication when regular training shooting exercises are yearly mandatory to law enforcement officers. Effects on health must be documented, even when low-level elemental (inorganic) lead exposure is detected. Forty police officers (nineteen cadets and twenty-one instructors) responded to a questionnaire about health, shooting habits, and potential lead exposure before a training curse. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for blood lead level (BLL) before and after a three days training curse. The mean BLL for the instructors’ group was 5.5 μg/dL ± 0.6. The mean BLL for the cadets’ group before the training was 3.3 μg/dL ± 0.15 and after the training the main BLL was 18.2 μg/dL ± 1.5. Samples were analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). All the participants in the training curse had significantly increased BLL (mean increment about 15 μg/dL) after the three days indoor shooting season.In conclusion, occupational lead exposure in indoor firing ranges is a source of lead exposure in Brazilian police officers, and appears to be a health risk, especially when heavy weapons with lead-containing ammunition are used in indoor environments during the firing training seasons.     

Depressive symptoms and carotid artery intima-media thickness in police officers

Purpose

Police work is a stressful occupation. Depressive symptoms, which may occur as a result of exposure to stressors in police work, have been known to be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. This cross-sectional study investigated the association between depressive symptoms and carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) among police officers.

Methods

CIMT was measured with B-mode carotid ultrasonography. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Analyses of variance and covariance were utilized to examine the mean values of common CIMT (CCA IMT) and maximum CIMT (MMXIMT) across quintiles of depressive symptoms.

Results

Participants included 412 officers (mean age = 41 years). Hypertension status significantly modified the association between CES-D score and CIMT. The association between CES-D score and CCA IMT was statistically significant (adjusted P = 0.030) but only among officers without hypertension. The associations between CES-D score and MMXIMT were not significant among officers with or without hypertension. Our results also showed that among officers who reported poor sleep quality, mean levels of CCA IMT, and MMXIMT tended to increase as depressive symptoms increased.

Conclusions

Depressive symptoms may be therefore be independently associated with CIMT, yet masked by hypertension. Even though sleep quality did not significantly modify the main association, our results also suggest that poor sleep quality may act synergistically with depressive symptoms to increase CIMT. Future prospective work would help to clarify these associations.     

Biomonitoring of traffic police officers exposed to airborne platinum

Background: Over the past two decades there has been a substantial increase in environmental levels of palladium, platinum, and rhodium, the platinum group elements (PGEs), due to the widespread use of catalytic converters for automotive traction.

Aim: To evaluate urinary platinum levels in occupationally exposed subjects.

Methods: A total of 161 employees from the Rome City Police Force were studied; 103 were traffic police involved in controlling streets with an average flow of vehicles, while the remaining 58 were control subjects engaged only in office work. Platinum quantification in the urine samples of these subjects was carried out by sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Results: There were no statistically significant differences between platinum levels in the group of subjects engaged in traffic control and the control group (4.45 (2.42) ng/l v 4.56 (2.84) ng/l, respectively).

Conclusions: Urinary levels were found to be higher than those reported for other urban populations, thus showing a progressive increase in human exposure to Pt.

     

Ambulatory (24 hour) blood pressure monitoring in police officers

The aim of the study is to evaluate, by ambulatory (24 h) blood pressure monitoring (ABPM), whether police officers exposed to urban pollutants and possible psycho-social stressors could be at risk of changes in ambulatory systolic blood pressure (SBP), and ambulatory diastolic blood pressure (DBP) compared to controls. After excluding the principal confounding factors, police officers and controls have been subdivided into non-smoker and smoker subjects. Police officers were compared by sex, age, length of service, family history of cardiovascular disease, serum total cholesterol, serum HDL cholesterol, serum LDL cholesterol, plasma triglyceride, body mass index (BMI kg/m (2)) and drinking habits with controls. Smoker police officers were compared with controls also by the smoking habit. In the non smoker group 77 police officers with outdoor activity (38 men and 39 women) and 87 controls with indoor activity (43 men and 44 women) were studied. In the smoker group 43 police officers (21 men and 22 women) and 29 controls (15 men and 14 women) were studied. In non smoker male police officers ambulatory SBP mean values during 24 h, during day-time and during night-time were significantly higher than controls. In the same group ambulatory DBP values during 24 h and between 6 AM and 11 AM and between 10 PM and 6 AM were significantly higher in police officers than controls. The results suggest that occupational exposure to urban pollutants and possible psycho-social stressors could cause changes in ABPM values in male police officers compared to controls.     

Physical activity levels as a quantifier in police officers and cadets

Objectives

The aim of the present study was to determine the physical activity levels of active duty police officers and police academy cadets in different life domains and intensities. These parameters were treated as potential quantifiers that could be used when assessing individuals preparing for work as future police officers.

Material and Methods

The study recruited 153 active police officers and 176 cadets attending a police academy and administered a diagnostic survey, the long-form version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, while in the statistical analysis the Student’s t-test for independent groups was applied.

Results

It was determined that police officers present high physical activity levels within the work domain, which are developed from initial training at a police academy and then throughout their police career.

Conclusions

Such data are important in the light of the role police officers play in public safety as well as the prominence of physical activity within a particular profession and how it can be targeted and tailored to their needs.     

Stress in the Norwegian police service

BACKGROUND: High levels of stress have been attributed to the conditions of police work, but there is little empirical evidence for this. AIMS: To develop a new instrument to measure job stress in the police; to assess the most severe and frequent police stressors; to compare levels of stress according to the demographic and organizational factors; and to study stress in relation to personality traits, work locus of control and coping strategies. METHODS: A comprehensive nationwide questionnaire survey of 3272 Norwegian police at all hierarchical levels, including the Norwegian Police Stress Survey (NPSS), the Job Stress Survey, the Basic Character Inventory, the Work Locus of Control Scale, and the Coping Strategies Scale. RESULTS: Work injuries were appraised as the most stressful but least frequent stressor and job pressure was reported the least severe but most frequent stressor. Females experienced job stressors less frequently, but appraised them as more severe than men did. Older police officers reported more job pressure severity and fewer work injuries. The police in districts where peer support was planned but not implemented, and who worked in districts with more than 50,000 inhabitants, perceived the lack of support more severely than others. The correlations between stress and personality traits, work locus of control, and coping were moderate. CONCLUSIONS: The NPSS captures police-specific stressors that are not adequately measured by global stress instruments. The study of stress in police work should preferably involve a nationwide use of police-specific stress instruments.