Centralization as a predictor of provocation discography results in chronic low back pain, and the influence of disability and distress on diagnostic power.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: The "centralization phenomenon" (CP) is the progressive retreat of referred pain towards the spinal midline in response to repeated movement testing (a McKenzie evaluation). A previous study suggested that it may have utility in the clinical diagnosis of discogenic pain and may assist patient selection for discography and specific treatments for disc pain. PURPOSE: Estimation of the diagnostic predictive power of centralization and the influence of disability and patient distress on diagnostic performance, using provocation discography as a criterion standard for diagnosis, in chronic low back pain patients. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: This study was a prospective, blinded, concurrent, reference standard-related validity design carried out in a private radiology clinic specializing in diagnosis of chronic spinal pain. PATIENT SAMPLE: Consecutive patients with persistent low back pain were referred to the study clinic by orthopedists and other medical specialists for interventional radiological diagnostic procedures. Patients were typically disabled and displayed high levels of psychosocial distress. The sample included patients with previous lumbar surgery, and most had unsuccessful conservative therapies previously. OUTCOME MEASURES: Diagnosis: results of provocation discography. Index test: The CP. Psychometric evaluation: Roland-Morris, Zung, Modified Somatic Perception questionnaires, Distress Risk Assessment Method, and 100-mm visual analog scales for pain intensity. METHODS: Patients received a single physical therapy examination, followed by lumbar provocation discography. Sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios of the CP were estimated in the group as a whole and in subgroups defined by psychometric measures. RESULTS: A total of 107 patients received the clinical examination and discography at two or more levels and post-discography computed tomography. Thirty-eight could not tolerate a full physical examination and were excluded from the main analysis. Disability and pain intensity ratings were high, and distress was common. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive likelihood ratios for centralization observed during repeated movement testing for pain distribution and intensity changes were 40%, 94%, and 6.9 respectively. In the presence of severe disability, sensitivity, specificity, and positive likelihood ratios were 46%, 80%, 3.2 and for distress, 45%, 89%, 4.1. In the subgroups with moderate, minimal, or no disability, sensitivity and specificity were 37%, 100% and for no or minimal distress 35%, 100%. CONCLUSIONS: Centralization is highly specific to positive discography but specificity is reduced in the presence of severe disability or psychosocial distress.     

Clinical predictors of screening lumbar zygapophyseal joint blocks: development of clinical prediction rules.

BACKGROUND: Only controlled intra-articular zygapophyseal joint (ZJ) injections or medial branch blocks can diagnose ZJ-mediated low back pain. The low prevalence of ZJ pain implies that identification of clinical predictors of a positive response to a screening block is needed. PURPOSE: To estimate the predictive power of clinical findings in relation to pain reduction after screening ZJ blocks. STUDY DESIGN: As part of a wider prospective blinded study investigating diagnostic accuracy of clinical variables, a secondary analysis was carried out to seek evidence of variables potentially valuable as predictors of screening ZJ block outcomes. PATIENT SAMPLE: Chronic low back pain patients received screening ZJ blocks (n=151) with 120 patients included in the analysis after exclusions. OUTCOME MEASURES: Pain intensity was measured using a 100-mm visual analog scale, and responses were categorized according to 75% through 95% or more pain reduction in 5% increments. METHODS: Patients completed pain drawings, questionnaires, and a clinical examination before screening lumbar ZJ blocks. History, demographic and clinical variables were evaluated in cross tabulation and regression analyses with diagnostic accuracy values calculated for variables and variable clusters in relation to different pain reduction standards. RESULTS: At the 75% pain reduction standard, 24.5% responded to screening ZJ blocks and 10.8% responded at the 95% standard. The centralization phenomenon is not associated with pain reduction using any standard. No variables were useful predictors of post-ZJ block pain reduction of less than 90%. Seven clinical findings were associated with 95% pain reduction after blocks. Five useful clinical prediction rules (CPRs) were found for ruling out a 95% pain reduction (100% sensitivity), and one CPR had a likelihood ratio of 9.7, producing a fivefold improvement in posttest probability. CONCLUSIONS: A negative extension rotation test, the centralization phenomenon, and four CPRs effectively rule out pain ablation after screening ZJ block. One CPR generates a fivefold improvement in posttest probability of a negative or positive response to ZJ block.     

Psychophysical measurements during lumbar discography: a heart rate response study

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical data analysis. OBJECTIVE: To determine if heart rate (HR) response correlates with positive discography results. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Lumbar discography is a controversial tool for the diagnosis of discogenic low back pain. The subjective nature of discography can make data interpretation difficult, leading to false-positive and false-negative results. HR changes have been found in numerous studies to be a reliable and valid indicator of acute pain. To date, there is no study analyzing the HR response to discography-induced pain. METHODS: The HR measurements were recorded immediately preceding and after contrast injection into the each disc, and statistically correlated with the provocation of concordant pain, nonconcordant pain, and nonpainful discs. RESULTS: Discography was performed in 26 subjects with low back pain. Among 75 discograms, 26 discs elicited concordant pain, 9 provoked nonconcordant pain, and 40 elicited no pain response. There was no significant change in HR during disc stimulation for negative [no pain response (P=0.19) and nonconcordant (P=0.26)] discograms, whereas positive discograms [concordant pain (numerical rating scale> or =6/10)] were associated with a statistically significant increase in HR (P=0.000002). CONCLUSIONS: Lumbar discography induces positive HR response only in positive discograms. Although there is no immediate practical application of these results, 2 implications may deserve future research: (a) correlation of HR response with surgical and intradiscal electrotherapy treatment outcomes; (b) evaluation of HR measurement in cases of false-positive results (concordant pain on discography but no HR response).     

Vertebral end-plate (Modic) changes on lumbar spine MRI: correlation with pain reproduction at lumbar discography

The vertebral end-plate has been identified as a possible source of discogenic low back pain. MRI demonstrates end-plate (Modic) changes in 20–50% of patients with low back pain. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between Modic changes on MRI and discogenic back pain on lumbar discography. The MRI studies and discograms of 58 patients with a clinical diagnosis of discogenic back pain were reviewed and the presence of a Modic change was correlated with pain reproduction at 152 disc levels. Twenty-three discs with adjacent Modic changes were injected, 21 of which were associated with pain reproduction. However, pain was also reproduced at 69 levels where no Modic change was seen. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) for a Modic change as a marker of a painful disc were 23.3%, 96.8%, 91.3% and 46.5% respectively. Modic changes, therefore, appear to be a relatively specific but insensitive sign of a painful lumbar disc in patients with discogenic low back pain. Received: 24 October 1997 Revised: 11 March 1998 Accepted: 21 April 1998     

椎间盘造影在腰椎多节段退变性疾病诊治中的应用探讨

目的初步探讨椎间盘造影术在腰椎多节段退变性疾病临床诊疗中的应用价值。方法 2006年9月～2010年4月,行手术治疗的伴有明显腰痛症状的腰椎多节段退变性疾病患者143例,分为2组：椎间盘造影组69例,术前对MRI检查提示椎间盘退变的椎间节段进一步行椎间盘造影检查,根据常规影像学检查以及椎间盘造影检查结果选择手术干预节段;常规诊疗组74例,术前仅根据常规影像学检查结果选择手术干预节段。对所有手术干预节段行改良经椎间孔腰椎椎体间融合术。随访并比较2组患者术前及术后3个月、6个月、12个月Oswestry功能障碍指数（Oswestry disability index,ODI）及疼痛视觉模拟量表（visual analogue scale,VAS）评分。结果椎间盘造影组及常规诊疗组分别有64例、71例患者完成了至少12个月的系统随访。2组患者术后3个月、6个月及12个月的ODI、VAS评分较术前均有好转;但椎间盘造影组术后3个月、6个月及12个月ODI、VAS评分明显优于常规诊疗组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论对伴有明显腰痛症状的腰椎多节段退变性疾病患者,椎间盘造影术具有良好的临床应用价值;在良好掌握临床适用范围及操作技术的基础上,不失为常规影像学检查的一种有益补充。     

MRI高信号区与椎间盘造影在椎间盘源性腰痛诊断中的相关性研究

目的 研究腰椎间盘MRI高信号区(HIZ)与椎间盘造影诱发疼痛反应之间的关系,为椎间盘源性下腰痛诊断和治疗提供参考.方法 对37例长期慢性下腰痛、无典型的神经根性症状和体征,且CT证实无椎间盘突出的患者行MRI检查和腰椎间盘造影.分析造影后的X线片和CT片,并结合造影时诱发的疼痛反应,比较其与腰椎间盘MRI高信号区之间的关系.结果 37例患者共行98个腰椎间盘造影,21个椎间盘疼痛反应阳性,其中有HIZ的间盘10个,占47.6%.77个疼痛反应阴性的椎间盘中,有HIZ的间盘29个,占37.6%.纤维环破裂程度分级越高,MRI出现高信号区的比例也越高,说明有高信号区的纤维环破裂程度高,无高信号区的纤维环破裂程度低(P＜0.01);而高信号区与造影疼痛反应阳性之间并无明显一致性(P＞0.05).结论 MRI高信号区在诊断椎间盘源性腰痛中仅为提示性和筛选性的影像学征象,不能替代椎间盘造影的金标准.     

腰椎间盘造影一致性疼痛反应和纤维环破裂程度的相关性研究

目的: 研究椎间盘源性下腰痛病人纤维环破裂程度和腰椎间盘造影一致性疼痛之间的关系。方法: 105例慢性下腰痛且无椎间盘突出的病人, 行腰椎间盘造影术。询问造影时病人疼痛反应, 分析造影后的X线片和造影后的CT片, 比较纤维环破裂程度与腰椎间盘造影一致性疼痛之间的相关性。结果: 105例病人中的 285个造影的腰椎间盘中, 67个腰椎间盘诱发一致性疼痛反应, 且全部呈现 2级以上的纤维环破裂。纤维环破裂分级越高, 椎间盘造影时一致性疼痛比例越大, 两者之间有显著的正相关性。结论: 椎间盘造影诱发的一致性疼痛反应比例和纤维环外层破裂程度呈正相关, 研究结果表明纤维环外层撕裂是疼痛复制的起源部位。     

A critical evaluation of discography in patients with lumbar intervertebral disc disease

STUDY DESIGN: The study is a prospective observational study of 48 continuous patients with symptomatic lumbar degenerative disk disease. Each patient underwent discography, MRI, and a biochemical analysis of disk lavage fluid. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to correlate concordant pain on discography with MRI grade and biochemical markers of inflammation in a clinical setting. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The pathophysiology of degenerative disk disease is complex. Discography is used to differentiate symptomatic from asymptomatic levels. MRI is used to image changes in disk water content. Biochemical assays have identified molecular markers of inflammation. To date, no study has correlated concordant pain on discography with MRI findings and biochemical markers. METHODS: Forty-eight (48) continuous patients with symptomatic lumbar degenerative disk disease gave informed consent for study entry. Patient sex, age, insurance, work status and visual analog score (VAS) were recorded. MRI was obtained and Pfirrmann grading was performed by a single spine surgeon. Discography with disc lavage was performed by a single anesthesiologist. Lavage samples were tested for inflammatory markers with high resolution multi-plex bead immunoassays and ELISA with >5 pg/ml resolution. RESULTS: None of demographic variables was significantly related to concordant pain on discogram by chi-squared tests and Mann-Whitney U-test. The Pfirrmann score was significantly different for patients with and without concordant pain at L3-L4 (p<0.001), but was insignificant at other levels after multitest correction. Pfirrmann scores were significantly different at any level in patients with and without concordant pain. VAS scores were not significantly correlated with opening pressures at any level. Despite the presence of serum proteins in the disk lavage fluid, none of the tested inflammatory mediators was identified by multi-plex bead immunoassays and ELISA. CONCLUSIONS: There are only weak correlations between demographic, discogram, and radiographic variables. Response to discogram cannot be predicted by non-invasive means. The disk lavage method was unable to identify the presence of specific inflammatory peptides with multi-plex immunoassays and ELISA.     

椎间盘造影术与椎间盘阻滞术在椎间盘源性腰痛中诊断结果的对比分析

目的比较分析椎间盘造影术与椎间盘阻滞术在椎间盘源性腰痛临床诊断中的检查结果。方法 2008年9～2011年9月收治78例慢性下腰痛患者,男32例,女46例,平均年龄38岁(29岁～46岁),临床表现及影像学检查考虑椎间盘源性腰痛。为进一步诊断进行椎间盘造影术,注射造影剂复制出平时典型腰痛者为阳性,造影诱发痛结果为单节段阳性者同时进行该节段椎间盘阻滞术,造影诱发痛结果为阴性者,选择临床高度怀疑的责任节段进行椎间盘阻滞术。椎间盘内阻滞后30 min,患者腰痛视觉模拟量表(visual analog scale,VAS)评分缓解60%以上者为阳性。记录并分析2种诊断方法的检查结果。结果椎间盘造影术:阳性60例,其中42例为单节段,18例为多节段;阴性18例。椎间盘阻滞术:42例单节段诱发痛阳性病例中30例椎间盘阻滞术阳性;18例诱发痛阴性病例中10例椎间盘阻滞术阳性。结论椎间盘阻滞术的检查结果与椎间盘造影术检查有差异,对椎间盘源性腰痛的诊断方法需要进一步的临床研究。     

Cauda equina compression post lumbar discography

Discography is used as an aid in the diagnosis of back pain related to intervertebral disc pathology. It involves attempting to elicit the patient's pain symptoms by injecting contrast into the suspected pathological disc. The overall complication rate of discography is low, with discitis being the most common complication and acute disc herniation post lumbar discography being reported in a small number of cases. We describe the case of a patient who developed cauda equina compression post lumbar discography.     

Guidelines for the performance of fusion procedures for degenerative disease of the lumbar spine. Part 6: magnetic resonance imaging and discography for patient selection for lumbar fusion

Discography is an exquisitely sensitive but not specific diagnostic test for the diagnosis of discogenic low-back pain. The restriction of the definition of a positive discographic study to one that elicits concordant pain from a morphologically abnormal disc improves the definition's accuracy. Fusion surgery based on discography alone, however, is not reliably associated with clinical success. Therefore, discography is not recommended as a standalone test for treatment decisions in patients with low-back pain. Magnetic resonance imaging is a sensitive and noninvasive test for the presence of degenerative disc disease. Discography should not be attempted in patients with normal lumbar MR images. Discography appears to have a role in the evaluation of patients with low-back pain, but it is best limited to the evaluation of abnormal interspaces identified on MR imaging, the investigation of adjacent-level disc disease, and as a means to rule out cases of nonorganic pain from surgical consideration.     

应用椎间盘造影判断腰椎间盘突出症腰痛的来源

[目的]应用椎间盘造影术探讨腰椎间盘突出症患者临床腰痛来源.[方法]137例椎间盘突出症患者根据造影术前MRI表现将椎间盘分为:正常、突出和退变.患者腰痛和腿痛的严重程度应用疼痛视觉模拟评分(VAS评分)判定,分为三组:(1)腰痛为主组;(2)腿痛为主组;(3)腰腿痛并重组.对所有退变的腰椎间盘及至少1个作对照的正常椎间盘进行椎间盘造影检查,如造影过程中诱发一致性腰痛,即认为椎间盘造影阳性.[结果]137例患者总共427个椎间盘行造影检查,其中104个造影阳性.椎间盘造影阳性患者腰痛与腿痛VAS评分无明显差异(P＞0.05),而阴性者腿痛评分高于腰痛评分(P＜0.05).腰痛为主组,腿痛为主组,腰腿痛并重组其造影阳性率分别为79.2%,18.6%,71. 7%.MRI表现为正常、突出和退变的椎间盘其造影阳性率分别是1.4%、48.3%、21.6%(P＜0.05).[结论]盘源性腰痛可能是腰痛明显的椎间盘突出症患者腰痛的主要原因,这种腰痛主要来源于椎间盘突出节段和或邻近退变节段.     

Delayed pain response after lumbar discography

Summary The delayed onset of symptomatic pain following lumbar discography (with no immediate pain response) is described in six patients, five with a minimum 2-year follow-up. It is usually seen in patients with nearly normal disc morphology who have incomplete or discrete annular tears that are not filled at the time of injection. Later (2–12 h in this study), dye leakage occurs through these lesions, thereby precipitating the discogenic pain This phenomenon may be missed and is probably more common than previously believed due to early discharge from the hospital, the patient expecting discomfort after the invasive study (hence no complaint is made), and the clinician being unaware of this delayed symptom, thereby not asking about it in follow-up. Close patient questioning regarding a delayed onset of symptomatic pain after discography is, therefore, an essential element in diagnostic information following this study.     

腰椎间盘造影在椎间盘源性腰痛诊治中的应用

目的应用椎间盘造影对椎间盘源性腰痛进行诊断并评价椎间融合手术的疗效。方法2003年10月—2004年6月间对45例具有椎间盘源性腰痛症状的患者进行了椎间盘造影,共101个椎间盘。所有病例全部进行了MRI和CT检查。观察造影图像和MRI表现,记录诱发痛、手术和保守治疗的疗效。结果45例患者中21例出现了诱发痛（47％）,101个造影椎间盘中有21个椎间盘出现诱发痛（21％）;21例诱发痛阳性患者中18例接受了360。融合手术,随访时间平均16个月（15～23个月）,术后11例患者腰痛完全消失（11／18,优：61％）,4例疼痛基本消失（4／18,良：22％）,3例腰痛无变化（3／18,差：17％）;3例诱发痛阳性患者和24例诱发痛阴性患者行保守治疗,在同期随访中,1例腰痛完全消失（1／27,优：4％）,10例疼痛基本消失（10／27,良：37％）,16例疼痛无变化甚至加重（16／27,差：59％）。结论腰椎间盘造影对椎间盘源性腰痛的诊断具有一定的敏感性,但不是一个特异性诊断方法;对确定为疼痛原因的椎间隙实施椎间360。融合手术可以消除患者的疼痛,中期效果好。     

经皮激光汽化减压术对造影结果不同的腰椎间盘突出症的疗效对比

目的对比经皮激光汽化减压术（PercutaneousLaserDiscDecompression,PLDD）对两种椎间盘造影结果的腰椎间盘突出症的疗效,结合文献探讨椎间盘造影及PLDD的临床应用。方法自2010-01—2013-05行PLDD治疗的单节段腰椎间盘突出症患者58例进行回顾性分析,术前造影阴性的16例为A组,阳性者42例为B组;激光烧灼总能量控制在300～600J,汽化减压并反复抽吸;对2组患者术前、术后即刻和随访时的临床表现、直腿抬高角度及JOA评分进行比较。结果A组与B组在术前、术后即刻和随访时直腿抬高角度及JOA评分均无显著差别。结论椎间盘造影阴性并不能完全排除椎间盘源性腰腿痛;椎间盘造影结果不同的两组腰椎间盘突出症患者在PLDD的中期疗效上无显著差异。     

False-positive findings on lumbar discography. Reliability of subjective concordance assessment during provocative disc injection

STUDY DESIGN: Experimental disc injections in subjects with no history of low back symptoms. OBJECTIVE: To determine in an experimental model the reliability of patients' subjective interpretation of pain concordancy during provocative disc injection. BACKGROUND: Discography in the evaluation of low back pain relies on a patient's subjective assessment of pain magnitude and quality during disc injection. Reproduction of significant pain on disc injection, which is similar to patients' usual pain, is believed to prove that the disc injected is the source of the patient's low back pain. In the current study, this hypothesis was tested in a controlled setting on patients with known nonspinal pain in a common referral area of discogenic pain. METHODS: Patients with no history of low back pain were recruited to participate in a study of discography. Patients scheduled to undergo posterior iliac crest bone graft harvesting for nonthoracolumbar procedures were evaluated with lumbar radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and psychometric testing. Two to 4 months after bone graft harvesting, patients underwent lumbar discography by strict blinded protocol. Patients were asked to compare the sensations elicited at discography to their usual back/buttock pain since bone graft harvesting. Pain was rated as 0-5 on a pain thermometer and concordancy was rated as none, dissimilar, similar, or exact. RESULTS: Eight subjects completed the study, and 24 discs were injected. Of the 14 disc injections causing some pain response, 5 were believed to be "different" (nonconcordant) pains (35.7%); 7 were "similar" (50.0%), and 2 were "exact" pain reproductions (14.3%). The presence of anular disruption predicted concordant pain reproduction (P < 0.05). Of 10 discs with anular tears, injection of 5 elicited pain that was similar to or an exact reproduction of pain at the iliac crest bone graft harvest sites. By the usual criteria for positive discography, 4 of the 8 patients (50%) would have been classified as positive. In these patients, the pain on a single disc injection was very painful, and the pain quality was noted to be exact or similar to the usual discomfort. All subjects had a negative control disc. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study demonstrate that patients with no history of low back pain who had undergone posterior iliac bone graft harvesting for nonlumbar procedures often experienced a concordant painful sensation on lumbar discography with their usual gluteal area pain. Thus, the ability of a patient to separate spinal from nonspinal sources of pain on discography is questioned, and a response of concordant pain on discography may be less meaningful than often assumed.     

CT scanning of lumbar discography. A useful diagnostic adjunct

Twenty-two patients with continued, undiagnosed symptoms of low back and sciatic pain for an average of 14 months were assessed. Patients studied had prior negative evaluations, including EMG, CT scanning, and/or metrizamide myelography. Three-level, posterolateral, extradural discography was performed on the side opposite the sciatica. One to 6-hours after discography, CT scanning was performed on all injected discs: 91% demonstrated abnormal discograms at one/more levels. CT imaging demonstrated contrast tracking to the periphery of the disc in 82%. Discography reproduced the patient's symptoms in 77%. The direction of contrast tracking seen on scanning correlated with clinical symptoms in 73% and with symptoms at discography in 82%. CT scanning was thought to be a useful adjunct to lumbar discography in patients with prior negative evaluations.     

腰椎间盘造影在椎间盘源性腰痛诊治中的应用

[目的]探讨椎间盘造影对椎间盘源性腰痛的诊断价值及椎间融合手术的疗效。[方法]2003年10月～2004年6月间对45例具有椎间盘源性腰痛症状的病人进行了椎间盘造影,共101个椎间盘,45例中依据椎间盘造影的结果行椎间360°融合手术18例,保守治疗27例。所有病例全部进行了MRI和CT检查。观察造影图像和MRI表现,记录诱发痛,随访手术组和保守组的疗效。[结果]45例中2l例出现了诱发痛(47%),101个造影椎间盘中有21个椎间盘出现诱发痛(21%);21例诱发痛阳性的病人中18例接受了360°融合手术,随访时间平均6个月(3～10个月),术后1l例病人腰痛完全消失(11/18,优:61%),4例疼痛基本消失(4/18,良:22%),3例腰痛无变化(3/18,差:17%);3例诱发痛阳性的病人和24例诱发痛阴性的病人行保守治疗,在同期随访中,1例腰痛完全消失(1/27,优:4%),10例疼痛基本消失(10/27,良:37%),16例疼痛没有变化甚至加重(16/27,差:59%)。[结论]腰椎间盘造影对椎间盘源性腰痛的诊断具有一定的敏感性,对确定为疼痛原因的椎间隙实施椎间360°融合手术可以消除病人的疼痛,近期效果比保守治疗好。