Fermentation improves anti-inflammatory effect of sipjeondaebotang on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

Sipjeondaebotang (SJ) has been used as a traditional drug in east-Asian countries. In this study, to provide insight into the biological effects of SJ and SJ fermented by Lactobacillus, we investigated their effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammation in macrophages. The investigation was focused on whether SJ and fermented SJ could inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin (PG) E(2) and nitric oxide (NO) as well as the expressions of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. We found that SJ modestly inhibited LPS-induced PGE(2), NO and TNF-α production as well as the expressions of COX-2 and iNOS. Interestingly, fermentation significantly increased its inhibitory effect on the expression of all pro-inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, fermented SJ exhibited increased inhibition of p38 MAPK and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK phosphorylation as well as NF-κB p65 translocation by reduced IκBα degradation compared with either untreated controls or unfermented SJ. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed fermentation by Lactobacillus increases liquiritigenin and cinnamyl alcohol contained in SJ, which are known for their anti-inflammatory activities. Finally, SJ fermented by Lactobacillus exerted potent anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting MAPK and NF-κB signaling in RAW 264.7 cells.     

Flower extract of Panax notoginseng attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response via blocking of NF-κB signaling pathway in murine macrophages

Aim of the study

The root of Panax notoginseng (PN) is commonly used to treat chronic liver disease with its therapeutic abilities to stop haemorrhage in the circulation, while the PN flower (PN-F) is largely unknown in the biological activities on inflammation and mechanisms of its actions. In this study, the pharmacologic effects of PN-F methanol extract on inflammation were investigated to address potential therapeutic or toxic effects in LPS-stimulated mouse macrophage cells, RAW264.7 cells.

Materials and methods

Production of NO, PGE₂ and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) in supernatant, the expression of iNOS, COX-2 and cytokines, the phosphorylation of MAPK moleduces (ERK1/2, JNK and p38 MAPK), and the activation of NF-κB in PN-F extract were assayed in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

Results

PN-F extract significantly inhibited the productions of NO, PGE₂, TNF-α and IL-1β on the LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, PN-F extract suppressed the mRNA and protein expressions of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The molecular mechanism of PN-F extract-mediated attenuation in RAW264.7 cells has close a relationship to suppressing the phosphorylation of MAPK molecules such as ERK1/2, JNK and p38 MAPK, and the translocation of NF-κB p65 subunit into nuclear.

Conclusion

These results indicate that PN-F extract inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory response via the blocking of NF-κB signaling pathway in macrophages, and demonstrated that PN-F extract possesses anti-inflammatory properties in vitro.     

Mechanism of anti-inflammatory activity of umbelliferone 6-carboxylic acid isolated from Angelica decursiva

Aims of the study

We recently reported the potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of umbelliferone 6-carboxylic acid (UMC) isolated from the whole plants of Angelica decursiva. In this study, we elucidated the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of UMC in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

The inhibitory effects of UMC on the production of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), the expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) were evaluated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation inhibitory activity of UMC was evaluated using t-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Furthermore, the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of UMC was evaluated using carrageenan induced mouse paw edema model.

Results

UMC dose-dependently inhibited NO and PGE₂ production by down-regulating iNOS and COX-2 protein expression in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. UMC also suppressed the production of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α in LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells in a concentration dependent manner. In addition, UMC dose-dependently prevented LPS-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κB in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, UMC exhibited the inhibitory activity against t-BHP-induced ROS generation in RAW 264.7 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 705.1 μg/ml. Moreover, UMC inhibited λ-carrageenan induced mouse paw edema by 70.40 and 60.20% at doses of 50 and 25 mg/kg body weight, respectively.

Conclusion

The combined results of this study indicate that UMC is an important anti-inflammatory constituent of A. decursiva and its anti-inflammatory effect was due to its ability to inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators via inhibition of NF-κB activation pathway.     

Anti-inflammatory mechanism of 15,16-epoxy-3α-hydroxylabda-8,13(16),14-trien-7-one via inhibition of LPS-induced multicellular signaling pathways

Phytochemical investigation of Leonurus japonicus has led to the isolation of a labdane diterpene derivative, 15,16-epoxy-3α-hydroxylabda-8,13(16),14-trien-7-one (1), which was tested for its in vitro anti-inflammatory effects. The results demonstrated that 1 exhibits an inhibitory effect on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The anti-inflammatory action shown by 1 suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, resulting in the down-regulation of iNOS and COX-2 protein expression, attributable to the inhibitory action of LPS-induced NO and PGE(2) production. Compound 1 inhibited LPS-induced phosphorylation and the degradation of inhibitory kappa B (IκBα) and decreased the nuclear translocation of p50 and p65. In addition, 1 exhibited an inhibitory effect on LPS-induced NF-κB-DNA and AP-1-DNA binding activity, using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay with NF-κB- and AP-1-specific (32)P-labeled probes. The LPS-induced mitogen-activated protein kinases (p-JNK, p-p38, and p-ERK) and p-Akt were inhibited after 30 and 10 min of LPS stimulation, respectively. In addition, TNF-α production was suppressed by 1.     

Chrysanthemum indicum Linné extract inhibits the inflammatory response by suppressing NF-κB and MAPKs activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

Aims of study

Although the flowers of Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (Asteraceae) have long been used in traditional Korean and Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory diseases, the underlying mechanism(s) by which these effects are induced remains to be defined. We investigated the effects of a 70% ethanolic extract of C. indicum (CIE) on the activities of cellular signaling molecules that mediate inflammatory responses.

Materials and methods

Production of NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, and IL-1β by ELISA, mRNA and protein expression of iNOS and COX-2, phosphorylation of MAPKs, and activation of NF-κB by RT-PCR and Western blotting were examined in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Results

The CIE strongly inhibited NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, and IL-1β production, and also significantly inhibited mRNA and protein expression of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the CIE clearly suppressed nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 subunits, which correlated with an inhibitory effect on IκBα phosphorylation. The CIE also attenuated the activation of ERK1/2 and JNK in a dose-dependent manner.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that the anti-inflammatory properties of CIE might result from the inhibition of inflammatory mediators, such as NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, and IL-1β, via suppression of MAPKs and NF-κB-dependent pathways.     

Aloe-emodin from rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 macrophages

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb) has long been used for the treatment of inflammation in China and other Asian countries. However, the mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory activity of this medicinal plant is not fully understood. The present study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of anthraquinones, the major constituents in rhubarb, and the molecular mechanism involved in their anti-inflammatory effects.

Materials and methods

RAW264.7 cells were stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence or absence of the compounds examined. The proliferation of RAW264.7 cells was assayed by the Alamar-Blue method. The quantity of nitric oxide (NO) was determined by Griess assay. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time PCR. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), inhibitor of nuclear factor κBα (IκBα), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK), and Akt/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) protein expression levels were determined by Western blotting.

Results

Aloe-emodin markedly suppressed the production of NO, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells with no apparent cytotoxicity. The mRNA expression levels of iNOS, IL-6, and IL-1β genes were also significantly inhibited by aloe-emodin. Western blot analysis showed that aloe-emodin suppressed LPS-induced iNOS protein expression, IκBα degradation, and the phosphorylation of ERK, p38, JNK, and Akt.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that aloe-emodin is the bioactive component of rhubarb that confers an anti-inflammatory effect through a likely mechanism involving a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokine production in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages via inhibition of NF-κB, MAPK, and PI3K pathways.     

Methylene chloride fraction of the leaves of Thuja orientalis inhibits in vitro inflammatory biomarkers by blocking NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling and protects mice from lethal endotoxemia

Aim of the study

Thuja orientalis (TO) has been a recognized herbal medicine across Northeast Asian countries for thousands of years and used for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases through as yet undefined mechanisms. In this study, we set out to determine whether the anti-inflammatory effects of this plant are mediated to suppress mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

Materials and methods

RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with the methylene chloride fraction of TO (MTO) and stimulated with LPS. Nitric oxide (NO) release was determined by the accumulation of nitrite in the culture supernatants and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-6 secretion were determined by immunoenzymatic assay. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression were evaluated via RT-PCR and Western blotting. NF-κB activation was also evaluated by reporter gene assay and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). In addition, the protective effect of MTO was evaluated by use of the LPS-induced endotoxin shock model in mice.

Results

We found that MTO significantly suppressed LPS-stimulated NO and IL-6 production without affecting cell viability. MTO inhibited the expression of LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 protein and their mRNA expression. Also, TNF-α and IL-6 secretion were decreased by MTO in both PMA and ionomycin-stimulated splenocytes. As a result, MTO inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6, which is hypothesized as being due to the suppression of LPS-induced p38 MAPK and NF-κB activation. Moreover, MTO improved the survival rate during lethal endotoxemia by inhibiting the production of TNF-α in an animal model and our LC-MS analysis showed that a major component of MTO was pinusolide.

Conclusions

We demonstrate here the evidence that the methylene chloride fraction of Thuja orientalis (MTO) potentially inhibits the biomarkers related to inflammation in vitro and in vivo, and might be provided as a potential candidate for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.     

丹栀龙胆逍遥汤成分复配物的抗炎作用

目的 研究丹栀龙胆逍遥汤中抗炎成分獐牙菜苦苷、京尼平苷酸、没食子酸复配物对脂多糖(LPS)诱导RAW264.7细胞炎症以及2,4-二硝基氯苯(DNCB)诱导小鼠特应性皮炎的保护作用.方法 采用MTT法检测细胞活力,Griess法检测NO水平,ELISA法检测IL-6、TNF-α、PGE2、iNOS、COX-2水平,We...     

藏药十八味党参丸提取物对脂多糖诱导的RAW264.7细胞Akt/p38MAPK信号通路及M1/M2极化影响的探究

目的探究藏药十八味党参丸(TEP)的提取物调控脂多糖(LPS)诱导小鼠巨噬细胞RAW 264.7的炎性反应及M1/M2极化分型的探究。方法 Alarmarblue法评价RAW 264.7活力;荧光酶标定量分析细胞活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)水平;Griess法检测上清液中细胞一氧化氮(NO)的分泌情况;流式细胞术检测表面标志物CD206和CCR7蛋白的表达;RT-qPCR法检测细胞白介素(IL)-1β、IL-6、趋化因子2(CCL2)、一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)、精氨酸酶(ARG)-1和肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)基因表达的情况;Western blot法检测TEP调控细胞合成iNOS、蛋白激酶B(Akt)和p38丝裂原活化激酶(p38MAPK)信号通路相关蛋白的表达情况。结果与模型组相比,TEP组一定程度上提高了RAW 264.7的细胞活性,同时抑制了LPS诱导的细胞内ROS水平的升高。经过LPS刺激后,模型组NO表达量显著升高,在24 h后表达量达到最高,而TEP组NO表达显著降低。模型组的CCR7表达升高,CD206表达下降,TEP干预后CCR7表达下降,CD206表达升高,且趋势呈现浓度依赖。与模型组相比,TEP组的IL-1β、IL-6、CCL2、iNOS、ARG和TNF-α基因表达以及iNOS、Akt和p38MAPK蛋白表达水平均显著降低。结论 TEP能够抑制细胞内ROS水平,降低NO分泌和炎性基因的表达水平,抑制细胞的M1表型,促进M2表型,其机制可能与细胞内iNOS、Akt和p38MAPK信号通路蛋白表达被抑制有关。     

藏药十八味党参丸提取物对脂多糖诱导的RAW264.7细胞Akt/p38MAPK信号通路及M1/M2极化影响的探究

目的探究藏药十八味党参丸(TEP)的提取物调控脂多糖(LPS)诱导小鼠巨噬细胞RAW 264.7的炎性反应及M1/M2极化分型的探究。方法 Alarmarblue法评价RAW 264.7活力;荧光酶标定量分析细胞活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)水平;Griess法检测上清液中细胞一氧化氮(NO)的分泌情况;流式细胞术检测表面标志物CD206和CCR7蛋白的表达;RT-qPCR法检测细胞白介素(IL)-1β、IL-6、趋化因子2(CCL2)、一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)、精氨酸酶(ARG)-1和肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)基因表达的情况;Western blot法检测TEP调控细胞合成iNOS、蛋白激酶B(Akt)和p38丝裂原活化激酶(p38MAPK)信号通路相关蛋白的表达情况。结果与模型组相比,TEP组一定程度上提高了RAW 264.7的细胞活性,同时抑制了LPS诱导的细胞内ROS水平的升高。经过LPS刺激后,模型组NO表达量显著升高,在24 h后表达量达到最高,而TEP组NO表达显著降低。模型组的CCR7表达升高,CD206表达下降,TEP干预后CCR7表达下降,CD206表达升高,且趋势呈现浓度依赖。与模型组相比,TEP组的IL-1β、IL-6、CCL2、iNOS、ARG和TNF-α基因表达以及iNOS、Akt和p38MAPK蛋白表达水平均显著降低。结论 TEP能够抑制细胞内ROS水平,降低NO分泌和炎性基因的表达水平,抑制细胞的M1表型,促进M2表型,其机制可能与细胞内iNOS、Akt和p38MAPK信号通路蛋白表达被抑制有关。     

Effects of taraxasterol on inflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

Aim of the study

Taraxasterol, a pentacyclic-triterpene, was isolated from the Chinese medicinal herb Taraxacum officinale. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of taraxasterol in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 murine macrophages.

Materials and methods

RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with 2.5, 5, or 12.5 μg/ml of taraxasterol 1 h prior to treatment with 1 μg/ml of LPS. Nitric oxide (NO) level in supernatants from cells was examined by Griess reaction, the concentrations of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured by ELISA. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation was evaluated by immunocytochemical analysis.

Results

We found that taraxasterol inhibited NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. Further studies revealed that taraxasterol prevented the LPS-induced NF-κB translocation from cytoplasm into nuclear.

Conclusions

These results indicate that taraxasterol has anti-inflammatory effect by blocking NF-κB pathway.     

Er-Miao-San,a traditional herbal formula containing Rhizoma Atractylodis and Cortex Phellodendri inhibits inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages through inhibition of NF-κB pathway and MAPKs activation

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Er-Miao-San (EMS) is a traditional Chinese herbal formulation that contains combinations of Rhizoma Atractylodis (RA) and Cortex Phellodendri (CP). It exhibits analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities and have been used for the treatment of various “Bi Zheng” for thousand years in China. The aims of the present study were to investigate the anti-inflammatory activities of EMS and elucidate the underlying mechanisms with regard to its molecular basis of action for the best combination.

Materials and methods

The anti-inflammatory effects of EMS were studied by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated activation of nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in mouse RAW264.7 macrophages. Expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) phosphorylation, p65 phosphorylation, inhibitor-κBα (IκBα) degradation, and NF-κB DNA-binding activity were further investigated.

Results

The present study demonstrated that EMS could suppress the production of NO in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. However, CP and RA did not have significant inhibitory effect on them. EMS also inhibited the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta and macrophage chemotactic protein-1. Further investigations showed EMS could suppress iNOs expression and p38 phosphorylation. EMS significantly decreased the content of IκBα, reduced the level of phosphorylated p65 and suppressed the NF-κB DNA-binding activity. All these results suggested the inhibitory effects of EMS on the production of inflammatory mediators through the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway.

Conclusions

Our results indicated that EMS inhibited inflammatory events and iNOS expression in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells through the inactivation of the MAPK and NF-κB pathway. This study gives scientific evidence validating the use of EMS in treatment of patients with “Bi Zheng” in clinical practice in traditional Chinese medicine.     

Achyranthes japonica exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via NF-κB suppression and HO-1 induction in macrophages

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The roots of Achyranthes japonica Nakai have been used in traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of edema and arthritis in Korea.

Aim of the study

In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism responsible for anti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of A. japonica roots (AJ) in LPS-stimulated macrophages.

Materials and methods

Nitric oxide (NO) production and as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were examined in TG-elicited peritoneal macrophages and RAW 264.7 cells. Cell viability was monitored by MTT assay. Protein and mRNA expressions were determined by Western blotting and RT-PCR, respectively. The activity of NF-κB and Nrf2 were examined by EMSA, immunocytochemistry or reporter assay.

Results

AJ inhibited LPS-induced NO secretion as well as iNOS expression, without affecting cell viability. Furthermore, AJ suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, degradation of IκB-α, phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38. Further study demonstrated that AJ induced heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) gene expression via nuclear translocation and transactivation of Nrf2. In addition, the inhibitory effects of AJ on iNOS expression were abrogated by small interfering RNA-mediated knock-down of HO-1.

Conclusions

These results suggest that AJ suppresses LPS-induced NO production and iNOS expression in macrophages through the inhibition of IκB/NF-κB and MAPK as well as the Nrf2-mediated HO-1 induction. These findings provide the scientific rationale for anti-inflammatory therapeutic use of A. japonica roots.     

Wogonoside displays anti-inflammatory effects through modulating inflammatory mediator expression using RAW264.7 cells

Ethnopharmacological relevance

The root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, also called Huangqin in China, is an herbal-based nutraceutical which is usually used in Chinese medicated diet (CMD). As an abundant ingredient in Huangqin, wogonoside is a flavonoid glycoside. The present work investigated the anti-inflammatory activities of wogonoside in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells.

Materials and methods

RAW264.7 cells were used. The inhibition of wogonoside against nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells were measured. Additionally, the effects of wogonoside on mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), TNF-α and IL-6 were also investigated.

Results and discussion

Wogonoside not only dose-dependently decreased the production of inflammatory mediators including NO and PGE₂ but also inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, wogonoside possessed significantly in vitro inhibitory effects on the gene expression of iNOS, COX2, TNF-α and IL-6.

Conclusion

These results suggest that wogonoside may be used as a functional food component for prevention and treatment of inflammation.