Endoscopic management of bile duct stones

The surgical risk of common duct exploration for the treatment of biliary calculi is considerably higher than that of cholecystectomy. Therefore, introduction of endoscopic sphincterotomy in 1974 was a major advance. It has become the therapy of choice in cholecystectomized patients or in those with an increased operative risk. Endoscopic sphincterotomy has a mortality rate of around 1% and a morbidity rate of 7%. These figures compare favourably with open surgery, especially in old patients. The procedure fails in about 10% of all patients referred for endoscopic removal of their calculi. However, several techniques have been described or are currently under evaluation to overcome these failures: intracorporeal or extracorporeal lithotripsy, long-term stenting of the bile duct, or direct application of solvents. Long-term follow-up studies show that between 2% and 20% of successfully managed patients may develop recurrent stones, mainly caused by bile stasis and infection. Patients with a functioning gall-bladder and no concomitant gall-bladder stones probably do not require cholecystectomy after successful endoscopic treatment of their choledochal stones. While endoscopic stone removal has replaced surgery in the elderly frail patients it has no major advantages in the young and fit patients, especially when the gall-bladder is still in situ.     

Endoscopic management of bile duct stones

The advantages of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) over open surgery make it the predominant method of treating choledocholithiasis. Today, technologic advances such as magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography and laparoscopic surgery are challenging ERCP's primacy in the management of common bile duct (CBD) stones. This article reviews the current status of endoscopic treatment of biliary stones and examines this in relation to laparoscopic management. The techniques and safety of endoscopic sphincterotomy and balloon sphincteroplasty are reviewed. Balloon sphincteroplasty should be limited to study protocols because of safety questions and inherent limitations. After sphincterotomy, 85% to 90% of CBD stones can be removed with a Dormia basket or balloon catheter. These techniques are described as having both advantages and disadvantages. Methods for managing "difficult stones" include mechanical lithotripsy, intraductal shock wave lithotripsy, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, chemical dissolution, and biliary stenting. These approaches are presented along with data supporting their use in specific situations. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has emerged as the preferred alternative to open cholecystectomy. Parallel advances in the endoscopic and laparoscopic management of CBD stones have made the issue regarding the optimal treatment strategy complex. Three approaches to the management of choledocholithiasis in the laparoscopic era are presented as follows: strict therapeutic splitting, flexible therapeutic splitting, and strict laparoscopic management. The optimal approach needs to be defined in prospective comparative trials. For now, preoperative endoscopic stone extraction should still be recommended as the approach of choice in patients suspected to have CBD stones based on clinical, biochemical, and imaging parameters. Primary laparoscopic evaluation and management is reasonable in patients who have a low-to-moderate probability of having CBD stones.     

Laparoscopic management of common bile duct stones

We reviewed our experience with the management of common bile duct (CBD) stones in 100 consecutive patients treated laparoscopicaly during the past 9 years (1990—1998) and evaluated the advantages, disadvantages, and feasibility of the treatment, to elucidate reasonable therapeutic strategies for patients harboring CBD stones. We conclude that the most rational management of CBD stones is that which is decided according to the size of the CBD, which, in turn, depends on the size, number, and location of stones. The cystic duct in patients with a non‐dilated CBD is narrow, because the size of the CBD depends on the size and number of stones that have migrated through the narrow cystic duct, and the stones in the non‐dilated CBD are therefore usually small in size and number. Patients with a dilated CBD, however, are good candidates to undergo single‐stage laparoscopic treatment. In our Department, therefore, even if complete removal of stones has failed in patients with non‐dilated CBD, further choledochotomy is not carried out, and a C‐tube is placed through the cystic duct for a subsequent postoperative transduodenal approach, because laparoscopic transcystic CBD exploration and choledochotomy may not be always feasible in those patients with non‐dilated CBD, and spontaneous migration of small stones into the duodenum is frequently noted. In fact, some stones demonstrated on intraoperative cholangiograms were not revealed by postoperative cholangiography. In contrast, retained stones detected postoperatively were successfully removed by postoperative endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST), the endoscopic papillary balloon dilatation technique (EPBDT), or postoperative cholangioscopy (POCS) without any injury to the sphinter of Oddi. With this approach, we believe that the causes of stone recurrence can be avoided in the majority of cases.     

胆总管巨大结石的内镜治疗

随着近年来内镜技术的发展,治疗性经内镜逆行胰胆管造影已经取代外科手术,成为胆总管结石的首选治疗方式。内镜下乳头肌切开术和乳头球囊扩张术都已成为标准的取石术式。然而,部分胆总管巨大结石的内镜下取石术,对内镜学者来说仍然是很大的挑战。近年问世的一些新兴内镜技术,比如内镜下十二指肠乳头大球囊扩张术、胆道镜引导下的激光碎石或液电碎石术,已经被证实为安全、有效的胆管巨大结石的内镜治疗方式。评述了近年来胆总管巨大结石的内镜治疗的新技术。     

Endoscopic management of difficult common bile duct stones

Endoscopy is widely accepted as the first treatment option in the management of bile duct stones.In this review we focus on the alternative endoscopic modalities for the management of difficult common bile duct stones.Most biliary stones can be removed with an extraction balloon,extraction basket or mechanical lithotripsy after endoscopic sphincterotomy.Endoscopic papillary balloon dilation with or without endoscopic sphincterotomy or mechanical lithotripsy has been shown to be effective for management of difficult to remove bile duct stones in selected patients.Ductal clearance can be safely achieved with peroral cholangioscopy guided laser or electrohydraulic lithotripsy in most cases where other endoscopic treatment modalities have failed.Biliary stenting may be an alternative treatment option for frail and elderly patients or those with serious co morbidities.     

Single-session minimally invasive management of common bile duct stones

Up to 18% of patients submitted to cholecystectomy had concomitant common bile duct stones. To avoid serious complications, these stones should be removed. There is no consensus about the ideal management strategy for such patients. Traditionally, open surgery was offered but with the advent of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) minimally invasive approach had nearly replaced laparotomy because of its well-known advantages. Minimally invasive approach could be done in either two-session (preoperative ERCP followed by LC or LC followed by postoperative ERCP) or single-session (laparoscopic common bile duct exploration or LC with intraoperative ERCP). Most recent studies have found that both options are equivalent regarding safety and efficacy but the single-session approach is associated with shorter hospital stay, fewer procedures per patient, and less cost. Consequently, single-session option should be offered to patients with cholecysto-choledocholithiaisis provided that local resources and expertise do exist. However, the management strategy should be tailored according to many variables, such as available resources, experience, patient characteristics, clinical presentations, and surgical pathology.     

胆道镜治疗术后胆道难取性残余结石

目的 探讨X线引导胆道镜经T管隧道超选择胆道造影方法及其对胆道残留结石介入治疗技术的临床价值.方法 在术后保留T管隧道的条件下,在X线机透视下精确引导胆道镜、导丝、导管、取石网篮等对疑难性胆道改变进行超选择性造影,并对胆道术后残留结石及胆道狭窄进行治疗的45患者进行分析.结果 7例胆管粘连性狭窄胆道反复行局部冲洗及扩张治疗后胆道通畅,2例疤痕性胆道狭窄行扩张效果不佳;7例胆总管结石并左右肝Ⅱ或Ⅲ级胆管多发结石1.5 h内顺利取出;6例左右肝胆管狭窄并多发结石1.0 h内顺利取出;6例肝左右Ⅱ或Ⅲ级胆管多发巨大结石使用液电碎石机碎石后取出,耗时2.0 h以上;6例左右肝Ⅱ～Ⅳ级胆管结石1.5 h内顺利取出;6例单纯胆总管结石30 min内顺利取出.3例左右肝胆管狭窄并多发结石因胆道狭窄未能取出;2例左右肝Ⅱ或Ⅲ级胆管结石因T管隧道出血未能取出.结论 X线引导胆道镜治疗术后胆道残余结石的方法具有易行性、科学性,能提高治疗胆道残余结石的工作效率和成功率.     

Difficult bile duct stones

Opinion statement Bile duct stones are routinely removed at time of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) after biliary sphincterotomy with standard balloon or basket extraction techniques. However, in approximately 10% to 15% of patients, bile duct stones may be difficult to remove due to challenging access to the bile duct (periampullary diverticulum, Billroth II anatomy, Roux-en-Y gastrojejunostomy), large (> 15 mm in diameter) bile duct stones, intrahepatic stones, or impacted stones in the bile duct or cystic duct. The initial approach to the removal of the difficult bile duct stone is to ensure adequate biliary sphincter orifice diameter with extension of biliary sphincterotomy or balloon dilation of the orifice. Mechanical lithotripsy is a readily available adjunct to standard stone extraction techniques and should be available in all ERCP units. If stone extraction fails with these maneuvers, two or more bile duct stents should be inserted, and ursodiol added to aid in duct decompression, stone fragmentation, and stone dissolution. Follow-up ERCP attempts to remove the difficult bile duct stones may be performed locally if expertise is available or alternatively referred to a tertiary center for advanced extracorporeal or intracorporeal fragmentation (mother-baby laser or electrohydraulic lithotripsy) techniques. Nearly all patients with bile duct stones can be treated endoscopically if advanced techniques are utilized. For the rare patient who fails despite these efforts, surgical bile duct exploration, percutaneous approach to the bile duct, or long-term bile duct stenting should be discussed with the patient and family to identify the most appropriate therapeutic option. A thoughtful approach to each patient with difficult bile duct stones and a healthy awareness of the operator/endoscopy unit limitations is necessary to ensure the best patient outcomes. Consultation with a dedicated tertiary ERCP specialty center may be necessary.     

Common bile duct stones

Opinion statement  

Biliary stenting for management of common bile duct stones

Large and multiple common bile duct stones may defy extraction despite an adequate endoscopic papillotomy. We treated 65 patients with symptomatic bile duct stones with endoscopic stents after failed attempts at stone extraction. Of the 65 patients, bile duct stones were extracted in eight at a second attempt, 29 underwent elective surgery and 28 patients were followed with the stent in situ for 21–52 months (median 42 months). During follow up, two patients had recurrent pain and two required surgery. The remaining 24 patients remained asymptomatic. Biliary stenting is a safe and effective mode of treatment for common bile duct stones in patients who have failed stone extraction after endoscopic papillotomy.     

Laserlithotripsy of common bile duct stones.

Endoscopic retrograde laser lithotripsy of common bile duct stones is a new technique which can be carried out through the endoscope without anaesthesia using ordinary endoscopic equipment. In the method described here a flashlamp pulsed Neodymium YAG laser (wave length 1064 nm) was used. Light energy was transmitted along a highly flexible quartz fibre with a diameter of 0.2 mm. This new technique was used in nine patients with concrements in the common bile duct, which could not be removed with the established endoscopic techniques. In eight of the nine the concrements (maximum diameter 4.7 x 3.1 cm) could be fragmented and in six the fragments could be extracted from the common bile duct. The total energy required was 80-300 J; complications were not observed.     

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the management of bile duct stones

Gallstone disease is a major cause of the need for abdominal surgery, and the most common indication for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Although it is a mature technology, ERCP remains a robust solution for the management of bile duct stones and, in most such cases, the treatment of choice. Although the diagnostic role of ERCP as a diagnostic pancreaticobiliary procedure has declined, its role as an effective therapeutic platform has continued to grow. The ability of ERCP to retain its go-to status in the great majority of bile duct stone cases is the result not only of the continued development of new technology but is also the end effect of continued refinement of existing technologies as well as the successful adaptation and adoption of new techniques.     

内镜下机械碎石术治疗胆总管大结石

目的 探讨内镜下机械碎石术治疗胆总管大结石的价值。方法 32例经ERC证实胆总管结石直径≥1．5cm。其中结石直径1．5～1．9cm17例，2．0～2．4cm9例，≥2．5cm6例，单颗结石24例，2颗结石5例，3颗或以上结石3例。先行乳头肌切开，然后使用机械碎石器于胆管内将结石粉碎取出。结果 机械碎石成功31例，成功率96．9％，失败1例。1次碎石取净结石28例，2次3例，3次1例。发生并发症4例，发生率12．5％，其中切口渗血和出血2例，急性胰腺炎1例．急性胆管炎1例，症状均较轻微。结论 对于直径≥1．5cm的胆总管大结石，单纯使用普通取石网篮难以取出，机械碎石术可不受结石大小限制，是理想、有效的碎石取石方法。     

Recent advances in endoscopic management of difficult bile duct stones

Endoscopic treatment is now recognized worldwide as the first‐line treatment for bile duct stones. Endoscopic sphincterotomy combined with basket and/or balloon catheter is generally carried out for stone extraction. However, some stones are refractory to treatment under certain circumstances, necessitating additional/other therapeutic modalities. Large bile duct stones are typically treated by mechanical lithotripsy. However, if this fails, laser or electrohydraulic lithotripsy (EHL) is carried out under the guidance of conventional mother‐baby cholangioscopy. More recently, direct cholangioscopy using an ultrathin gastroscope and the newly developed single‐use cholangioscope system – the SpyGlass direct visualization system – are also used. In addition, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy has also been used for stone fragmentation. Such fragmentation techniques are effective in cases with impacted stones, including Mirizzi syndrome. Most recently, endoscopic papillary large balloon dilationhas been introduced as an easy and effective technique for treating large and multiple stones. In cases of altered anatomy, it is often difficult to reach the papilla; in such cases, a percutaneous transhepatic approach, such as EHL or laser lithotripsy under percutaneous transhepatic cholangioscopy, can be a treatment option. Moreover, enteroscopy has recently been used to reach the papilla. Furthermore, an endoscopic ultrasound‐guided procedure has been attempted most recently. In elderly patients and those with very poor general condition, biliary stenting only is sometimes carried out with or without giving subsequent dissolution agents.     

Endoscopy for bile duct stones

In the era of laparoscopic cholecystectomy and advanced non-invasive imaging studies, pre-operative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for bile duct stones should be reserved for selected patients. ERCP remains the therapy of choice for removal of bile duct stones in the post-cholecystectomy patient and in patients with intact gallbladders. Bile duct stones can be cleared in nearly all patients using endoscopic techniques of sphincterotomy and mechanical lithotripsy. Difficult or complex bile duct stones can be endoscopically removed in the majority of patients with additional techniques such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, intraductal lithotripsy and/or stent placement. In non-operative patients in whom stone clearance cannot be achieved, long-term stent placement is a potential option in patients who are not candidates for further therapy. Endoscopic therapy may be effective in selected patients with intrahepatic biliary stones.