Epidemiological Study of Lumpy Skin Disease Outbreaks in North‐western Iran

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a highly contagious transboundary disease of cattle with major economic losses. This study was undertaken to address the emergence and epidemiological features of LSD in four north‐western provinces of Iran. These provinces have extensive borders with others country including Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Armenia. A population of 683 cattle from 91 farms were examined during LSD outbreak in Iran during 2014–2016. The information of the farms including the population size, gender, age, vaccination status, clinical signs and the number of death because of LSD were recorded in the designed questionnaires. A number of 234 blood samples were collected randomly from animals with and without clinical signs of LSD. DNA was extracted from blood samples, and they were used for amplifying a fragment of 434 bp in size coupled with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) for molecular detection of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). The estimated prevalence, cumulative mortality and case fatality were 17.9%, 3.5% and 19.7%, respectively. There was no significant difference in occurrence of the disease between male and female cattle. LSD occurrence in age groups above 5 years old and below 6 months old showed highest and lowest relative frequencies, respectively. Vaccination was significantly decreased the occurrence of clinical disease. The developed PCR–RFLP technique was able to differentiate between LSDV, sheep pox virus (ShPV) and goat pox virus (GPV). It was concluded that LSD was entered into Iran probably from Iraq via uncontrolled animal movements along common land borders between two countries. Developed PCR–RFLP could be used as a rapid and inexpensive method for differentiating Capripoxviruses (CaPVs).     

Emergence of Lumpy Skin Disease in Greece, 2015

Lumpy skin disease was first reported in the EU, Greece, in August 2015. Until the end of December 2015, six regional units have been affected in northern Greece and the island of Limnos. This article presents the epidemiological situation, the diagnosis, the control measures including emergency vaccination and the preliminary conclusions from the experience gained.     

Evidence of Transstadial and Mechanical Transmission of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus by Amblyomma hebraeum Ticks

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically important disease caused by LSD virus (LSDV), a Capripoxvirus, characterized by fever and circumscribed skin lesions. It is suspected to be transmitted mechanically by biting flies. To assess the vector potential of Amblyomma hebraeum in transmission of LSDV, mechanical/intrastadial and transstadial modes of transmission of the virus by this tick species were investigated. Two cattle were artificially infected as sources (donors) of infection to ticks. Ticks were infected as either nymphs or adults. Male A. hebraeum ticks were partially fed on donor animals and transferred to recipient animals to test for mechanical/intrastadial transmission. Nymphal A. hebraeum were fed to repletion on donor animals. The emergent adult ticks were placed on recipient animals to test for transstadial transmission of the virus. Successful transmission of LSDV infection was determined in recipient animals by monitoring development of clinical signs, testing of blood for the presence of LSDV by real‐time PCR, virus isolation and the serum neutralization test. This report provides further evidence of mechanical/intrastadial and, for the first time, transstadial transmission of LSDV by A. hebraeum. These findings implicate A. hebraeum as a possible maintenance host in the epidemiology of the disease.     

Lumpy Skin Disease in Jordan: Disease Emergence,Clinical Signs,Complications and Preliminary‐associated Economic Losses

The objectives of this study are to report the emergence of lumpy skin disease (LSD) in Jordan and associated clinical signs, complications and preliminary economic losses. In mid‐April, 2013, two adult dairy cattle developed clinical signs suggestive of LSD and were confirmed as positive by PCR. The two cases were in Bani Kenanah district, Irbid governorate, on the Jordanian border of Israel and Syria. The disease spread rapidly to all the districts of Irbid governorate. During the month following the emergence of the disease, data were collected related to the epidemiology of the disease and the numbers of affected cattle on the premises. Forty‐one dairy cattle holdings were surveyed. The morbidity rate ranged from 3% to 100%, (Mean = 35.1%, SD ±28.5%). The mortality rate ranged from 0% to 20%, (Mean = 1.3%, SD ±4.4%). The case fatality rate ranged from 0% to 100%, (Mean = 6.2%, SD ±22%). The overall morbidity rate was 26%, mortality rate 1.9% and case fatality rate 7.5%. Skin nodules, anorexia, decreased milk production and decreased body weight were common clinical signs, while mastitis and myiasis were seen as complications in a few affected animals. Decreased body weight ranged from 0% to 80%, (Mean = 23.1%, SD ±15.7%). Decreased milk production ranged from 0% to 100%, (Mean = 51.5%, SD ±22.2%). Affected cattle were treated mainly with broad‐spectrum antibiotics and anti‐inflammatory drugs. The cost of treatment ranged from 0 to 84.3 British Pound/animal, (Mean = 27.9 GBP, SD ±22.5 GBP). LSD continues to spread through the Middle East region and poses a serious threat to the rest of Asia and Europe. International collaboration and communication is warranted to prevent the further spread of the disease to the rest of Asia and Europe.     

Spread rate of lumpy skin disease in the Balkans, 2015–2016

After its introduction in Turkey in November 2013 and subsequent spread in this country, lumpy skin disease (LSD ) was first reported in the western Turkey in May 2015. It was observed in cattle in Greece and reported to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE ) in August 2015. From May 2015 to August 2016, 1,092 outbreaks of lumpy skin disease were reported in cattle from western Turkey and eight Balkan countries: Greece, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Kosovo, and Albania. During this period, the median LSD spread rate was 7.3 km/week. The frequency of outbreaks was highly seasonal, with little or no transmission reported during the winter. Also, the skewed distribution of spread rates suggested two distinct underlying epidemiological processes, associating local and distant spread possibly related to vectors and cattle trade movements, respectively.     

Detection and Molecular Characterization of Foot and Mouth Disease Viruses from Outbreaks in Some States of Northern Nigeria 2013–2015

Control measures for foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Nigeria have not been implemented due to the absence of locally produced vaccines and risk‐based analysis resulting from insufficient data on the circulating FMD virus (FMDV) serotypes/strains. In 2013‐2015, blood and epithelial samples were collected from reported FMD outbreaks in four states (Kaduna, Kwara, Plateau and Bauchi) in northern Nigeria. FMDV non‐structural protein (NSP) seroprevalence for the outbreaks was estimated at 80% (72 of 90) and 70% (131 of 188) post‐outbreak. Antibodies against FMDV serotypes O, A, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3 were detected across the states using solid‐phase competitive ELISA. FMDV genome was detected in 99% (73 of 74) of the samples from FMD‐affected animals using rRT‐PCR, and cytopathic effect was found in cell culture by 59% (44 of 74) of these samples. Three FMDV serotypes O, A and SAT2 were isolated and characterized. The phylogenetic assessments of the virus isolates showed that two topotypes of FMDV serotype O, East Africa‐3 (EA‐3) and West Africa (WA) topotypes were circulating, as well as FMDV strains belonging to the Africa genotype (G‐IV) of serotype A and FMDV SAT2 topotype VII strains. While the serotype O (EA‐3) strains from Nigeria were most closely related to a 1999 virus strain from Sudan, the WA strain in Nigeria shares genetic relationship with three 1988 viruses in Niger. The FMDV serotype A strains were closely related to a known virus from Cameroon, and the SAT2 strains were most closely related to virus subtypes in Libya. This study provides evidence of co‐occurrence of FMDV serotypes and topotypes in West, Central, East and North Africa, and this has implication for control. The findings help filling the knowledge gap of FMDV dynamics in Nigeria and West Africa subregion to support local and regional development of vaccination‐based control plans and international risk assessment.     

Risk Factors for Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Tanzania, 2001–2006

We developed a model to quantify the effect of factors influencing the spatio‐temporal distribution of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in Tanzania. The land area of Tanzania was divided into a regular grid of 20 km × 20 km cells and separate grids constructed for each of the 12‐month periods between 2001 and 2006. For each year, a cell was classified as either FMD positive or negative dependent on an outbreak being recorded in any settlement within the cell boundaries. A Bayesian mixed‐effects spatial model was developed to assess the association between the risk of FMD occurrence and distance to main roads, railway lines, wildlife parks, international borders and cattle density. Increases in the distance to main roads decreased the risk of FMD every year from 2001 to 2006 (ORs ranged from 0.43 to 0.97). Increases in the distance to railway lines and international borders were, in general, associated with a decreased risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 0.85 to 0.99). Increases in the distance from a national park decreased the risk of FMD in 2001 (OR 0.80; 95% CI 0.68–0.93) but had the opposite effect in 2004 (OR 1.06; 95% CI 1.01–1.12). Cattle population density was, in general, positively associated with the risk of FMD (ORs ranged from 1.01 to 1.30). The spatial distribution of high‐risk areas was variable and corresponded to endemic (2001, 2002 and 2005) and epidemic (2003, 2004 and 2006) phases. Roads played a dominant role in both epidemiological situations; we hypothesize that roads are the main driver of FMD expansion in Tanzania. Our results suggest that FMD occurrence in Tanzania is more related to animal movement and human activity via communication networks than transboundary movements or contact with wildlife.     

G‐Protein‐Coupled Chemokine Receptor Gene in Lumpy Skin Disease Virus Isolates from Cattle and Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Egypt

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), sheep poxvirus (SPV) and goat poxvirus (GPV) are the most serious poxviruses of ruminants. In this study, we analysed the G‐protein‐coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR) genes of LSDV isolates from cattle and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Egypt during the summer of 2011. Multiple alignments of the nucleotide sequences revealed that the water buffalo LSDV isolate differed from the cattle isolate at four nucleotide positions, and both isolates had nine nucleotide mutations from the reference strain, Egyptian tissue culture‐adapted cattle LSDV/Ismailyia88 strain. Compared with the GPCR sequences of SPV and GPV strains, a 21 nucleotide insertion and a 12 nucleotide deletion were identified in the GPCR genes of our used isolates and other LSDVs. The amino acid sequences of GPCR genes of our isolates contained the unique signature of LSDV (A₁₁, T₁₂, T₃₄, S₉₉ and P₁₉₉). Phylogenetic analyses showed that the GPCR genes of cattle and water buffalo LSDVs were closest genetically, indicating a potential transmission of cattle LSDV to water buffalo.     

Evidence of extensive renewed Schmallenberg virus circulation in Belgium during summer of 2016 – increase in arthrogryposis‐hydranencephaly cases expected

A seroprevalence study carried out between June and September 2016 in the Belgian sheep population showed a significant increase in overall (from 25% to 62%) and between‐herd (from 60% to 96%) seroprevalence against Schmallenberg virus (SBV) during this period, indicating the most extensive recirculation of SBV since its original emergence in 2011. SBV recirculation was confirmed by the detection of SBV RNA‐positive Culicoides obsoletus complex midges collected in the region of Antwerp in August 2016, reaching a minimum infection rate of 3%. The recirculation of SBV in the largely unprotected ruminant population during summer 2016 will likely cause an increase in the number of arthrogryposis‐hydranencephaly cases in newborn ruminants during the coming months.     

Genetic Characterization of Circulating African Swine Fever Viruses in Nigeria (2007–2015)

Sequencing and analysis of three discrete genome regions of African swine fever viruses (ASFV) from archival samples collected in 2007–2011 and active and passive surveillance between 2012 and 2015 in Nigeria were carried out. Analysis was conducted by genotyping of three single‐copy African swine fever (ASF) genes. The E183L and B646L genes that encode structural proteins p54 and p72, respectively, were utilized to delineate genotypes before intragenotypic resolution by characterization of the tetrameric amino acid repeat region within the hypervariable central variable region of the B602L gene. The results showed no variation in the p72 and p54 gene regions sequenced. Phylogeny of p72 sequences revealed that all the Nigerian isolates belonged to genotype I, while that of the p54 recovered the Ia genotype. Analysis of B602L gene revealed the differences in the number of tetrameric repeats. Four new variants (Tet‐15, Tet‐17a, Tet‐17b and Tet‐48) were recovered, while a fifth variant (Tet‐20) was the most widely distributed in the country displacing Tet‐36 reported previously in 2003–2006. The viruses responsible for ASF outbreaks in Nigeria are from very closely related but mutated variants of the virus that have been circulating since 1997. A practical implication of the genetic variability of the Nigerian viral isolates in this study is the need for continuous sampling and analysis of circulating viruses, which will provide epidemiological information on the evolution of ASFV in the field versus new incursion for informed strategic control of the disease in the country.     

Schmallenberg virus in Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) populations in France during 2011‐2012 outbreak

Following the emergence of the Schmallenberg virus (SBV) in 2011 in Germany and its rapid spread in Europe, Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) collected through the French surveillance network were analysed in order to record the presence of virus genome into species diversity collected, to assess the minimum infectious rates (MIR) and the virus circulation dynamics in Culicoides populations. Two vector activity periods were selected (2011, August to October, 53 sites and 2012, June to October, 35 sites) corresponding to 704 night collections. A total of 29,285 individual midges covering at least 50 species were tested either in pools of maximum 50 females or individually (for Culicoides obsoletus /Culicoides scoticus ) using real‐time RT‐PCR. Nine species were found SBV positive (C. obsoletus , C. scoticus , Culicoides chiopterus , Culicoides dewulfi , Culicoides imicola , Culicoides pulicaris , Culicoides newsteadi , Culicoides lupicaris and Culicoides nubeculosus ) with overall MIR ranging from 0.2% to 4.2%. While the Culicoides nubeculosus laboratory strain is generally considered to have only low vector competence for viruses, interestingly, field‐caught C. nubeculosus specimens were found positive twice for SBV. The first SBV‐positive pool was recorded in August 2011 in north‐eastern France, dating the virus circulation in France 5 months earlier than the first recorded congenital malformations and 2 months earlier than the former recorded date based on retrospective serological data. The MIR were maximum in October 2011, and in July 2012 according to dates of virus arrival in the studied areas. Moreover, our study also showed that virus circulation could be locally intense with infection rate (IR) reaching up to 16% for C. obsoletus /C. scoticus in July 2012 in one site of western France. This retrospective study demonstrates the importance of large‐scale analysis to describe the spatio‐temporal dynamics of virus circulation.     

Epidemiological Analysis,Serological Prevalence and Genotypic Analysis of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease in Nigeria 2008–2009

The epidemiological situation of foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) is uncertain in Nigeria, where the disease is endemic, and the majority of outbreaks are unreported. Control measures for FMD in Nigeria are not being implemented due to the absence of locally produced vaccines and an official ban on vaccine importation. This study summarizes the findings of a 3‐year study aimed at quantifying the seroprevalence of FMD, its distribution in susceptible species and the genetic diversity of FMDV isolated from the Plateau State of Nigeria. A 29% FMD prevalence was estimated using 3ABC enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (3ABC ELISA). Farms with suspected FMD nearby, with contact with wildlife, that used drugs or FMD vaccines or with >100 animals, and animals of large ruminant species and in pastures other than nomadic grazing were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with FMD. Antibodies against five FMDV serotypes, (A, O, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) were detected by the virus neutralization test (VNT) at various titres (<100–>800) from all tested sera from most parts of the region. This is probably the first report of the presence of FMDV SAT3 in Nigeria. Further studies to investigate the potential probable presence and prevalence of SAT 3 virus in Nigeria are required. Tissue samples collected from clinical animals were positive for FMDV. Virus isolates were sequenced and confirmed as serotype A. All of the isolates showed marked genetic homogeneity with >99% genetic identity in the VP1 region and were most closely related to a previously described virus collected from Cameroon in 2000. This study provides knowledge on the epidemiological situation of FMD in Plateau State, Nigeria, and will probably help to develop effective control and preventive strategies for the disease in Nigeria and other countries in the West African subregion.     

Genetic Analysis of Feline Panleukopenia Virus Full‐length VP2 Gene in Domestic Cats Between 2006–2008 and 2012–2014, Portugal

Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) and canine parvovirus (CPV) are two closely related viruses, which cause acute gastroenteritis in carnivores, and cats may be infected by strains of both viruses. The viruses are found worldwide and may have changing host ranges and genetic variation that can be found around the world in some cases. Here, we screened a Portuguese population of cats by a conventional PCR assay for the presence of FPV/CPV viruses in faecal samples and tissues between 2006–2008 and 2012–2014. The sequence analysis of the complete VP2 gene showed that 18 of 31 animals tested were positive for FPV DNA, and no case of CPV infection was detected. The analysis of specific DNA detected three new non‐synonymous substitutions in the VP2 gene that were found in single groups and were related to viruses reported elsewhere by phylogenetic analysis – some were related to Italian isolates, one was closely related to isolates from Vietnam and China, and two were related with older strains from the USA. The results of our study show that FPV circulated in the Portuguese cat population and as expected the found strains are slightly divergent from those reported previously.     

Resurgence of rabies in Hungary during 2013–2014: An attempt to track the origin of identified strains

In 2013–2014, accumulation of rabies episodes raised concerns regarding ongoing elimination programme in Hungary. Nearly four dozen cases were identified over a 13‐month period in the central region of the country far behind the immunization zones. Although the outbreak was successfully controlled, the origin of disease remained unknown. In this study, we sequenced the partial N and G genes from 47 Hungarian rabies virus (RV ) strains isolated from the 2013–2014 outbreak. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the N and G genes showed that the Hungarian RV isolates share high nucleotide similarity among each other (up to 100%). When analysing the N gene, comparable sequence similarity was seen between the outbreak strains and some historic Romanian RV strains. Unfortunately, in the lack of available sequence data from the Romanian RV strains, the genetic relationship within the G gene could not be determined. Phylogenetic analysis of Hungarian RV isolates detected in the past revealed that multiple independent RV lineages circulated in our country over the past 25 years. The parental strain of the 2013–2014 outbreak may have been imported independently perhaps from east through transborder movement of a reservoir animal. Next to the introduction, this imported RV strain seems to have spread clonally in the affected area. Our findings indicate that despite effective control measures that, overall, minimized the incidence of rabies over the past decade, field and laboratory monitoring needs to be continued to make rabies elimination programme in Hungary successful.     

Challenges for Serology‐Based Characterization of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Endemic Areas; Identification of Two Separate Lineages of Serotype O FMDV in Uganda in 2011

Control of foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) in Uganda by ring vaccination largely depends on costly trivalent vaccines, and use of monovalent vaccines could improve the cost effectiveness. This, however, requires application of highly specific diagnostic tests. This study investigated outbreaks of FMD in seven Ugandan districts, during 2011, using the PrioCHECK^® FMDV NS ELISA, solid‐phase blocking ELISAs (SPBEs) and virus neutralization tests (VNTs), together with virological analyses for characterization of the responsible viruses. Two hundred and eighteen (218) cattle and 23 goat sera as well as 82 oropharyngeal fluid/epithelial tissue samples were collected. Some 50% of the cattle and 17% of the goat sera were positive by the PrioCHECK^® FMDV NS ELISA, while SPBEs identified titres ≥80 for antibodies against serotype O FMD virus (FMDV) in 51% of the anti‐NSP positive cattle sera. However, 35% of the anti‐NSP positive cattle sera had SPBE titres ≥80 against multiple serotypes, primarily against serotypes O, SAT 1 and SAT 3. Comparison of SPBEs and VNTs for the detection of antibodies against serotypes O, SAT 1 and SAT 3 in 72 NSP positive cattle sera showed comparable results against serotype O (P = 0.181), while VNTs detected significantly fewer samples positive for antibodies against SAT 1 and SAT 3 than the SPBEs (P < 0.001). Detection of antibodies against serotype O was consistent with the isolation of serotype O FMDVs from 13 samples. Four of these viruses were sequenced and belonged to two distinct lineages within the East Africa‐2 (EA‐2) topotype, each differing from the currently used vaccine strain (EA‐1 topotype). The relationships of these lineages to other serotype O viruses in the Eastern Africa region are discussed. To enhance the control of FMD in Uganda, there is need to improve the specificity of the SAT‐SPBEs, perform vaccine matching and implement improved regional FMD control.     

Epidemiology of Foot and Mouth Disease in Ethiopia: a Retrospective Analysis of District Level Outbreaks, 2007–2012

This study aimed at determining the incidence, distribution, risk factors, and causal serotypes of foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Ethiopia based on 5 years of retrospective outbreak data (September 2007 until August 2012). District level outbreak data were collected from 115 randomly selected districts using a questionnaire administered to district animal health officers. The national incidence of FMD outbreaks during the study period was 1.45 outbreaks per five district years. Outbreaks were geographically widespread affecting all major regional states in the country and were more frequent in the central, southern, and southeastern parts of the country. Neither long‐term nor seasonal trends were observed in the incidence of outbreaks. A mixed effects logistic regression analysis revealed that the type of production system (market oriented system versus subsistence systems), presence of a major livestock market and/or route, and adjacency to a national parks or wildlife sanctuary were found to be associated with increased risk of outbreaks in the districts. FMD virus serotypes O, A, SAT 2, and SAT 1 were identified as the causal serotypes of the outbreaks during the study period. Whereas O was the dominant serotype, SAT 2 was the serotype that showed increase in relative frequency of occurrence. The estimated incidence of outbreaks is useful in assessing the economic impacts of the disease, and the identified risk factors provide important knowledge to target a progressive FMD control policy for Ethiopia.     

Description of Events Where African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Strayed from the Endemic Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Zone in South Africa, 1998–2008

African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are reservoir hosts of Southern African Territories (SAT) foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) virus strains. In South Africa, infected buffaloes are found in the FMD‐infected zone comprising the Kruger National Park (KNP) and its adjoining reserves. When these buffaloes stray into livestock areas, they pose a risk of FMD transmission to livestock. We assessed 645 records of stray buffalo events (3124 animals) from the FMD infected zone during 1998–2008 for (i) their temporal distribution, (ii) group size, (iii) age and gender composition, (iv) distance from the infected zone fence and (v) outcome reported for each event. A maximum entropy model was developed to evaluate spatial predictors of stray buffalo events and assess current disease control zones. Out of all buffaloes recorded straying, 38.5% escaped from the FMD infected zone during 2000/2001, following floods that caused extensive damage to wildlife fences. Escape patterns were not apparently influenced by season. The median size of stray groups was a single animal (IQR [1–2]). Adult animals predominated, comprising 90.4% (620/686) of the animals for which age was recorded. Of the 315 events with accurate spatial information, 204 (64.8%) were recorded within 1 km from the FMD infected zone. During late winter/spring (June–October), stray buffaloes were found significantly closer to the FMD infected zone (median = 0.3 km, IQR [0.1–0.6]). Less than 13% (40/315) of stray groups reached the FMD protection zone without vaccination, posing a higher risk of spreading FMD to these more susceptible livestock. Model outputs suggest that distance from the FMD infected zone, urban areas and permanent water sources contributed almost 85% to the spatial probability of stray buffalo events. Areas with a high probability for stray buffalo events were well covered by current disease control zones, although FMD risk mitigation could be improved by expanding the vaccination zone in certain areas.     

Molecular detection and characterization of carnivore parvoviruses in free‐ranging Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) in southern Italy

The most important Italian population of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) occurs in the southern part of the peninsula with two isolated sub‐populations of about 250 adult individuals. The Eurasian otter is considered to be near threatened and it is a fully protected species. The aims of this study were to investigate for the first time the occurrence and characterize the parvoviruses included in the species Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 in seven carcasses of road‐killed Eurasian otters from the southern Italy. Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 are responsible for acute gastroenteritis and leukopenia in pets and free‐ranging carnivores. Initial screening of tissue samples by real‐time PCR revealed CPV/FPV DNA in tissue samples of five Eurasian otters; three of them, showed co‐infections by both CPV and FPV. Among the five positive Eurasian otters, we successfully obtained six DNA sequences from four individuals including two CPV‐2a, one CPV‐2b, one CPV‐2c, and two FPV sequences. Comparison of these sequences with 250 VP2 gene sequences deposited in the GenBank database, showed 10 nt differences resulting in two synonymous and eight non‐synonymous substitutions. On the basis of these results, two sequences here found were characterized as new CPV‐2a, one was characterized as new CPV‐2b variant, and one was characterized as FPV‐like mutant. The last two sequences belong to a FPV and CPV‐2c strain respectively. Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 is reported for the first time in the Eurasian otter showing high infection value in southern Italy. Occurrence of this infection should be studied further to understand its possible pathogenicity and virulence to the fragile and isolate Eurasian otter population which live in southern Italy.     

Risk Factors and Spatial Distribution of Canine Coccidioidomycosis in California, 2005–2013

Given the predisposition of dogs to coccidioidomycosis, identification of high‐risk regions for coccidioidomycosis in dogs may improve early recognition of emerging human disease. We sought to identify risk factors for canine coccidioidomycosis and to produce a risk map for coccidioidomycosis occurrence. Forty‐one dogs seen at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California, Davis, between 2005 and 2013 with coccidioidomycosis were identified together with a control population of 79 dogs. Owners were surveyed about potential risk factors including younger age, digging behaviour, and travel to Arizona or the California central valley. Risk factors were analysed using logistic regression analysis. Outcomes were used to generate a risk map for coccidioidomycosis in California. There was a significant correlation between the reported rate of coccidioidomycosis in humans and our risk map for canine coccidioidomycosis in California, supporting the idea of dogs as sentinels for emerging geographic areas for coccidioidomycosis in humans.