Two Years After the Schmallenberg Virus Epidemic in the Netherlands: Does the Virus still Circulate?

Two years after the introduction of the Schmallenberg virus in north‐western Europe, it is unknown whether the virus is still circulating in countries that were the first to be confronted with it. When the population‐level immunity declines in Europe, reintroduction or the re‐emergence of SBV in Europe might eventually result in an outbreak of similar magnitude of that seen in 2011–2012. The Netherlands was part of the primary outbreak region of SBV in 2011. The aim of this study was to determine whether SBV circulated amongst dairy herds in the Netherlands in 2013, and if so, to which extent. For this purpose, the presence of SBV‐specific antibodies in naive cattle was investigated. A total of 394 dairy farms were sampled between October and December 2013 by collecting five serum samples per herd. Antibodies were detected in 1.1% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.7–1.7)] of the animals. All seropositive animals were single reactors per herd and were at least 8 months old at sampling. As these results were inconclusive in demonstrating freedom of SBV circulation, a more in‐depth investigation was initiated to provide more insight: an additional sample of 20 youngstock within the same age category (including the five initially sampled animals) was collected from 17 of the 21 positive herds and tested for SBV‐specific antibodies. This resulted in 9 antibody‐positive test results of 316 samples. Again, the positive samples were single reactors within the sample obtained from each farm, which is unlikely given the characteristics of SBV. Therefore, assuming the single reactors as false‐positive, this survey showed with 95% confidence that the maximum possible prevalence of herds with SBV circulation in the Netherlands was <1% in 2013.     

Distribution of Schmallenberg Virus and Seroprevalence in Belgian Sheep and Goats

A serological survey to detect Schmallenberg virus (SBV)‐specific antibodies by ELISA was organized in the Belgian sheep population to study the seroprevalence at the end of the epidemic. One thousand eighty‐two sheep samples which were collected from 83 herds all over Belgium between November 2011 and April 2012 were tested. The overall within‐herd seroprevalence and the intraclass correlation coefficient were estimated at 84.31% (95% CI: 84.19–84.43) and 0.34, respectively. The overall between‐herd seroprevalence was 98.03% (95% CI: 97.86–98.18). A spatial cluster analysis identified a cluster of six farms with significantly lower within‐herd seroprevalence in the south of Belgium compared with the rest of the population (P = 0.04). It was shown that seroprevalence was associated to flock density and that the latter explained the presence of the spatial cluster. Additionally, 142 goat samples from eight different herds were tested for SBV‐specific antibodies. The within‐herd seroprevalence in goats was estimated at 40.68% (95% CI: 23.57–60.4%). The results of the current study provided evidence that almost every Belgian sheep herd has been in contact with SBV during 2011 and should be taken into consideration as part of comprehensive SBV surveillance and control strategies.     

Follow‐up of the Schmallenberg Virus Seroprevalence in Belgian Cattle

Schmallenberg virus (SBV), which emerged in Northwestern Europe in 2011, is an arthropod‐borne virus affecting primarily ruminants. Based on the results of two cross‐sectional studies conducted in the Belgian ruminant population during winter 2011–2012, we concluded that at the end of 2011, almost the whole population had already been infected by SBV. A second cross‐sectional serological study was conducted in the Belgian cattle population during winter 2012–2013 to examine the situation after the 2012 transmission period and to analyse the change in immunity after 1 year. A total of 7130 blood samples collected between 1st January and 28 February 2013 in 188 herds were tested for the presence of SBV‐specific antibodies. All sampled herds tested positive and within‐herd seroprevalence was estimated at 65.66% (95% CI: 62.28–69.04). A statistically significant decrease was observed between the beginning and the end of 2012. On the other hand, age‐cohort‐specific seroprevalence stayed stable from 1 year to the other. During winter 2012–2013, calves between 6 and 12 months had a seroprevalence of 20.59% (95% CI: 15.34–25.83), which seems to be an indication that SBV was still circulating at least in some parts of Belgium during summer–early autumn 2012. Results showed that the level of immunity against SBV of the animals infected has not decreased and remained high after 1 year and that the spread of the virus has slowed down considerably during 2012. This study also indicated that in the coming years, there are likely to be age cohorts of unprotected animals.     

Post‐epidemic investigation of Schmallenberg virus in wild ruminants in Slovenia

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a vector‐borne virus belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus within the Bunyaviridae family. SBV emerged in Europe in 2011 and was characterized by epidemics of abortions, stillbirths and congenital malformations in domestic ruminants. The first evidence of SBV infection in Slovenia was from an ELISA‐positive sample from a cow collected in August 2012; clinical manifestations of SBV disease in sheep and cattle were observed in 2013, with SBV RNA detected in samples collected from a total of 28 herds. A potential re‐emergence of SBV in Europe is predicted to occur when population‐level immunity declines. SBV is also capable of infecting several wild ruminant species, although clinical disease has not yet been described in these species. Data on SBV‐positive wild ruminants suggest that these species might be possible sources for the re‐emergence of SBV. The aim of this study was to investigate whether SBV was circulating among wild ruminants in Slovenia and whether these species can act as a virus reservoir. A total of 281 blood and spleen samples from wild ruminants, including roe deer, red deer, chamois and European mouflon, were collected during the 2017–2018 hunting season. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against SBV by ELISA; the overall seroprevalence was 18.1%. Seropositive samples were reported from all over the country in examined animal species from 1 to 15 years of age. Spleen samples from the seropositive animals and serum samples from the seronegative animals were tested for the presence of SBV RNA using real‐time RT‐PCR; all the samples tested negative. Based on the results of the seropositive animals, it was demonstrated that SBV was circulating in wild ruminant populations in Slovenia even after the epidemic, as almost half (23/51) of the seropositive animals were 1 or 2 years old.     

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Infection in Cattle Herds in the State of Paraná, Brazil

Epidemiological data describing bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV‐1) infection in Brazilian cattle herds are scarce. A cross‐sectional study was conducted in the state of Paraná between December 2001 and July 2002 with the objective of estimating the apparent prevalence of BoHV‐1‐seropositive herds and animals and identifying the potential risk factors for infection in farms with breeding animals in the state of Paraná in Southern Brazil. The state was divided into seven regions based on the livestock production dynamics of the different areas. Sampling was performed in two stages. Initially, herds were randomly selected, followed by a random selection of animals within the selected herds. Blood samples were collected from 14 803 females, aged ≥24 months, from 2018 BoHV‐1 non‐vaccinated herds. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against BoHV‐1 using an indirect enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The apparent prevalence of seropositivity in the herds and animals in Paraná was 71.3% (95% CI: 69.3–73.3) and 59.0% (95% CI: 56.2–61.8), respectively. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that risk factors associated with the presence of the infection were as follows: beef herds [OR = 1.58 (1.12–2.23)], natural service [OR = 1.48 (1.02–2.14)], purchase of animals [OR = 1.90 (1.52–2.37)], pasture rental [OR = 2.24 (1.51–3.33)], existence of calving pens [OR = 1.56 (1.20–2.03)] and records of abortion in the last 12 months [OR = 1.45 (1.08–1.95)]. These results indicate that BoHV‐1 infection is widespread in the state of Paraná.     

Schmallenberg Virus beyond Latitude 65°N

Extensive and rapid spread of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) in Sweden was detected by consecutive serological bulk milk surveys conducted before and after the vector season of 2012. Whereas <0.2% of cattle herds tested positive in a first survey in spring 2012, SBV‐specific antibodies were detected in almost 75% of 723 bulk milk samples randomly collected all over the country 6 months later, beyond the 65th northern latitude, and with an observed spatial distribution suggesting multiple introductions of the virus. Circulation of virus was later confirmed by the detection of SBV in malformed lambs and calves starting from November 2012 and January 2013, respectively. These observations suggest SBV circulation starting from July 2012, with a peak in transmission between August and October. A local heterogeneity of within‐herd seroprevalence was found, indicating that SBV‐naïve animals remain also in highly infected areas enabling the re‐emergence of the infection in the coming vector season.     

Herd‐level prevalence and incidence of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) and porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) in swine herds in Ontario,Canada

Porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV ) and porcine deltacoronavirus (PDC oV) were first identified in Canada in 2014. Surveillance efforts have been instrumental in controlling both diseases. In this study, we provide an overview of surveillance components for the two diseases in Ontario (Canada), as well as PEDV and PDC oV incidence and prevalence measures. Swine herds located in the Province of Ontario, of any type, whose owners agreed to participate in a voluntary industry‐led disease control programme (DCP ) and with associated diagnostic or epidemiological information about the two swine coronaviruses, were eligible to be included for calculation of disease frequency at the provincial level. PEDV and PDC oV data stored in the industry DCP database were imported into the R statistical software and analysed to produce weekly frequency of incidence counts and prevalence counts, in addition to yearly herd‐level incidence risk and prevalence between 2014 and 2016. The yearly herd‐level incidence risk of PEDV , based on industry data, was 13.5%, 3.0% and 1.4% (95% CI : 11.1–16.2, 2.0–4.2, 0.8–2.3), while the yearly herd‐level incidence risk of PDC oV was 1.1%, 0.3%, and 0.1% (95% CI : 0.5–2.2, 0.1–0.9, 0.0–0.5), for 2014, 2015 and 2016, respectively. Herd‐level prevalence estimates for PEDV in the last week of 2014, 2015 and 2016 were 4.4%, 2.3% and 1.4%, respectively (95% CI : 3.1–6.0, 1.5–3.3, 0.8–2.2), while herd‐level prevalence estimates for PDC oV in the last week of 2014, 2015 and 2016 were 0.5%, 0.2% and 0.2%, respectively (95% CI : 0.1–1.2, 0.0–0.6, 0.0–0.6). Collectively, our results point to low and decreasing incidence risk and prevalence for PEDV and PDC oV in Ontario, making both diseases possible candidates for disease elimination at the provincial level.     

Large‐Scale Cross‐Sectional Serological Survey of Schmallenberg Virus in Belgian Cattle at the End of the First Vector Season

A cross‐sectional survey was conducted in the Belgian cattle population after the first period of infection of the emerging Schmallenberg virus. A total number of 11 635 cattle from 422 herds sampled between 2 January and 7 March 2012 were tested for the presence of Schmallenberg‐specific antibodies using an ELISA kit. Between‐herd seroprevalence in cattle was estimated at 99.76% (95% CI: 98.34–99.97) and within‐herd seroprevalence at 86.3% (95% CI: 84.75–87.71). An Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of 0.3 (P < 0.001) was found, indicating that the correlation between two animals within a herd with respect to their serological status was high. Those results corroborate the conclusion that the Schmallenberg virus was widespread in Belgium during winter 2011. Seroprevalence was shown to be statistically associated to the animal's age (P < 0.0001): with 64.9% (95% CI: 61.34–68.3) estimated for the 6–12 months of age, 86.79% (95% CI: 84.43–88.85) for the 12–24 months of age and 94.4% (95% CI: 93.14–95.44) for the animals older than 24 months. Based on the results of the described serological survey, we can conclude that after the first Schmallenberg virus episode, almost every Belgian cattle has already been in contact with the virus. In consequence, the vast majority of the host animals should have developed post infection protective immunity against the virus.     

Evidence of extensive renewed Schmallenberg virus circulation in Belgium during summer of 2016 – increase in arthrogryposis‐hydranencephaly cases expected

A seroprevalence study carried out between June and September 2016 in the Belgian sheep population showed a significant increase in overall (from 25% to 62%) and between‐herd (from 60% to 96%) seroprevalence against Schmallenberg virus (SBV) during this period, indicating the most extensive recirculation of SBV since its original emergence in 2011. SBV recirculation was confirmed by the detection of SBV RNA‐positive Culicoides obsoletus complex midges collected in the region of Antwerp in August 2016, reaching a minimum infection rate of 3%. The recirculation of SBV in the largely unprotected ruminant population during summer 2016 will likely cause an increase in the number of arthrogryposis‐hydranencephaly cases in newborn ruminants during the coming months.     

First report of Schmallenberg Virus Infection in Cattle and Midges in Poland

Two outbreaks of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) infection that coincided with the introduction of two bulls imported from France into two herds located in West Pomerania and Silesia provinces in Poland are described in detail. The first SBV real‐time RT‐PCR‐positive result was obtained during routine testing of one of the imported bulls. The second bull and the affected farms were tracked by further investigation. Transmission of SBV into Polish cattle herds where the bulls were imported was confirmed by viral RNA detection in real‐time RT‐PCR, virus isolation followed by immunoperoxidase (IPX) staining and seroconversion. SBV RNA was detected also in Culicoides obsoletus pools caught in a trap located 5 km from one of the outbreaks. Testing nearly 900 samples collected prior to the two outbreaks from the same areas or provinces neighbouring with Germany where SBV cases had previously been detected gave negative results for the presence of SBV or specific antibodies. These cases are the first ones detected in cattle in Poland and provide evidence of recent transmission of the pathogen into the country and involvement of midge vectors.     

Epidemiological investigation and phylogenetic analysis of caprine parainfluenza virus type 3 in sheep of China

Caprine parainfluenza virus type 3 (CPIV3) is a new member of the Respirovirus genus in the Paramyxivirudae family, mainly causing respiratory disease. Up to now, accumulating evidence has focused on CPIV3 infection in goats, with little understood about its epidemiology in sheep. To that end, we collected 1,163 sheep sera samples from nine provinces/autonomous regions in 2012 and 1,863 samples from six provinces/autonomous regions during 2016–2017, with serological prevalence of 50.3% (95% CI: 47.5, 53.3) and 64.9% (95% CI: 62.9, 67.2), respectively. Pathogenic detection by qRT‐PCR was also performed on serum samples collected in 2016–2017, and the percentage of CPIV3 positive samples was 21.5% (95% CI: 19.7, 23.5). Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analyses revealed 11 novel CPIV3 strains based on the M gene sequences. The M gene and full‐length sequences of CPIV3 strains derived from sheep shared high nucleotide similarity with goat‐origin strains, indicating conserved genome characteristics between the viruses. Furthermore, sequence evolution and epidemiological analysis show that CPIV3 is widespread throughout China. This is the first report describing CPIV3 infection in sheep in China, showing a high sero‐prevalence and contributes to the assessment of the epidemiology of CPIV3 in China.     

Serosurvey on Schmallenberg Virus and Selected Ovine Reproductive Pathogens in Culled Ewes From Southern Spain

After the first case of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was reported in southern Spain (March 2012), a retrospective serological study was carried out in extensive sheep flocks from nearby areas to assess the history of exposure to SBV and other selected ovine reproductive pathogens (Chlamydophila abortus, Coxiella burnetii, Border Disease virus ‘BDV’, Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum). Secondly, the presence of antibodies was investigated in meat juice samples against selected pathogens to validate their use in serosurveys in sheep. A total of 209 Merina and cross‐bred culled ewes belonging to 12 outdoor flocks managed in extensive breeding systems were sampled. Serum and meat juice samples were collected at the slaughterhouse and analysed using commercial ELISA kits. Chlamydophila abortus (62.68%, CI₉₅ 56.13–69.23) and Toxoplasma gondii (57.42%, CI₉₅ 50.72–64.12) were the most prevalent pathogens. The seroprevalence of BDV (16.27%, CI₉₅ 11.27–21.27) and Coxiella burnetii (13.88%, CI₉₅ 9.2–18.56) was moderate, and only 4 of 209 animals (1.91%, CI₉₅ 1.82–2.96) presented specific antibodies against Neospora caninum or SBV. All the examined ovine flocks were seropositive to three or more pathogens. The highest percentage of seropositive animals was detected for T. gondii‐C. abortus coseropositive (25.36%) culled ewes. The concordance between serum and meat juice samples was moderate for T. gondii (κ = 0.419) and BDV (κ = 0.568), and fair for C. abortus (κ = 0.311). Our results show evidence of circulation of SBV from summer 2011 in southern Spain. Furthermore, C. abortus and T. gondii were the most prevalent pathogens associated with sheep in outdoor rearing systems. Finally, these preliminary results point to meat juice samples as a potential biological sample for serosurveys studies on sheep.     

Patterns of Avian Influenza A (H5) and A (H9) virus infection in backyard,commercial broiler and layer chicken farms in Bangladesh

In order to control Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) H9N2 virus spread in endemically infected countries, a detailed understanding of infection patterns is required. We conducted cross‐sectional studies in Bangladesh in 2016 and 2017, on 144 backyard, 106 broiler and 113 layer chicken farms. Although all sampled birds were negative for H5 virus by RT‐PCR, H5 antibodies were detected in unvaccinated birds on all three farming systems. Higher H5 antibody prevalence was observed in ducks raised on backyard farms, 14.2% (95% CI: 10.0%–19.8%), compared to in‐contact backyard chickens, 4.2% (95% CI: 2.8%–6.1%). The H5 antibody prevalence was lower in broiler chickens, 1.5% (95% CI: 0.9%–2.5%), compared to layer chickens, 7.8% (95% CI: 6.1%–9.8%). H9 viruses were detected by RT‐PCR in 0.5% (95% CI: 0.2%–1.3%) and 0.6% (95% CI: 0.3%–1.5%) of broilers and layers, respectively, and in 0.2% (95% CI: 0.0%–1.2%) of backyard chickens. Backyard chickens and ducks showed similar H9 antibody prevalence, 16.0% (95% CI: 13.2%–19.2%) and 15.7% (95% CI: 11.3%–21.4%), which was higher compared to layers, 5.8% (95% CI: 4.3%–7.6%), and broilers, 1.5% (95% CI: 0.9%–2.5%). Over the course of a production cycle, H5 and H9 antibody prevalence increased with the age of backyard and layer chickens. Usually, multiple ducks within a flock were H5 antibody positive, in contrast to backyard chickens, broilers and layers where only individual birds within flocks developed H5 antibodies. Our findings highlight low virus circulation in healthy chickens of all production systems in Bangladesh, which is in contrast to high virus circulation reported from live bird markets. Data generated in this project can be used to adopt risk‐based surveillance approaches in different chicken production systems in Bangladesh and to inform mathematical models exploring HPAI infection dynamics in poultry from the source of production.     

Constant Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Circulation in Wild Boar and Red Deer in Spain: An Increasing Concern Source of HEV Zoonotic Transmission

Hepatitis E is a viral zoonosis that affects multiple hosts. The complete dynamics of infection in wildlife are still unknown, but the previous fact facilitates the maintenance and circulation of the virus, posing a risk to human health in the case of meat consumption from susceptible animals. In Spain, it has been shown how domestic pigs, cattle and wildlife (i.e. wild boar and red deer) clearly interact in hunting farms, generating a complex epidemiological situation in terms of interspecies pathogen transmission. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to (i) evaluate the circulation of the virus in geographically close domestic (Iberian pigs) and wild animals (wild boar and deer) living in hunting areas from central Spain over an 8‐year period (2003–2010) and (ii) to determine whether HEV could be used as a marker of domestic–wildlife contact. For these purposes, a longitudinal analysis of Iberian pig, wild boar and red deer samples (n = 287) through virological and serological tests was conducted to shed light upon the circulation events of HEV. Regarding HEV RNA detection by real‐time RT‐PCR, 10.12% samples (95% CI: 5.44–14.8) from wild boar and 16.05% samples (95% CI: 8.06–24.04) from red deer were positive. As for the Iberian pigs, none of the 48 samples was positive for HEV RNA detection. In the serological analysis, 43.75% (95% CI: 29.75–57.75) from Iberian pig, 57.40% (95% CI: 48.10–66.70) from wild boar and 12.85% (95% CI: 5.01–20.69) samples from red deer presented anti‐HEV antibodies. Positive samples were distributed among all study years (2003–2010). These results depict the urgent need to improve the inspection and surveillance of these species and their products. In the case of HEV, it is clear that the stable and constant presence of the virus in wildlife and its contact with Iberian pigs pose a risk for human health as they are all destined for human consumption.     

Serosurvey of Schmallenberg Virus Infections in Sheep and Goat Flocks in Lower Saxony,Germany

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) infections can cause congenital musculoskeletal and vertebral malformations as well as neurological failures in foetuses of several ruminant species if susceptible mother animals were infected during early gestation. Blood samples gained from 17 goat and 64 sheep flocks in Lower Saxony (LS), Germany (January–May 2012), which is located in the core region of the 2011/2012 epidemic were tested for antibodies against SBV by ELISA to detect past exposure to SBV. A SBV‐specific questionnaire was raised in all flocks. The calculated median within‐herd prevalence was 43.8% (min–max: 5.6–93.3%) for goats and 58.7% (min–max: 6.5–100%) for sheep, showing that small ruminants in LS, especially goats, are still at risk of novel SBV infections in the following lambing seasons as not all animals have seroconverted yet. Statistical analysis revealed that goats have a significantly lower risk of SBV infections than sheep which might be explained by different host preferences of Culicoides ssp. as main vectors for SBV and different housing conditions.     

Establishing post‐outbreak freedom from African horse sickness virus in South Africa's surveillance zone

An African horse sickness (AHS) outbreak occurred in South Africa's AHS controlled area in autumn 2016. A freedom from disease survey was performed to establish the likelihood of ongoing circulation of the associated virus during the same period the following year. A single‐stage surveillance strategy was employed with a population‐level design prevalence of 1% to establish a survey population sensitivity of 95% (probability that one or more positive horses would be detected if AHS was present at a prevalence greater than or equal to the design prevalence). In March 2017, a total of 262 randomly selected horses from 51 herds were sampled from the 2016 outbreak containment zone. Three within‐herd and herd‐level design prevalence scenarios were used in evaluating the post‐survey probability of freedom. Depending on the underlying design prevalence scenarios, effectively ranging between 0.8% and 6.4%, and the use of informed or uninformed priors, the probability of freedom derived from this surveillance ranged between 73.1% and 99.9% (uninformed prior) and between 96.6% and 100% (informed prior). Based on the results, the authors conclude that it is unlikely that the 2016 AHS virus was still circulating in the autumn of 2017 in the 2016 outbreak containment zone. The ability to perform freedom from disease surveys, and also to include risk‐based methods, in the AHS controlled area of South Africa is influenced by the changing underlying population at risk and the high level of vaccination coverage in the horse population. Ongoing census post‐outbreak must be undertaken to maintain a valid sampling frame for future surveillance activity. The seasonality of AHS, the restricted AHS vaccination period and the inability to easily differentiate infected from vaccinated animals by laboratory testing impact the ability to perform a freedom from disease survey for AHS in the 12 months following an outbreak in the controlled area.     

Serosurvey of Schmallenberg Virus Infection in the Highest Goat‐Specialized Region of France

The monitoring of both the spread and clinical impact of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) infection within its full host range is important for the control of the epidemic and potential new outbreaks. In France, a national surveillance plan based on voluntary notifications of congenital malformations in newborn ruminants revealed that goats were the less affected host species. However, seroprevalence studies only targeted sheep and cattle, preventing accurate estimations of the real impact of SBV infection in goats. Here, a serological survey was conducted in the highest goat‐specialized region of France between June 2012 and January 2013. A total of 1490 goat sera from 50 herds were analysed by ELISA. The between‐herd and within‐herd prevalences were estimated at 62% and 13.1%, respectively. Seroprevalence was not uniformly distributed throughout the territory and markedly differed between intensive and extensive herds. The low within‐herd seroprevalence demonstrates that a large fraction of the French goat population remains susceptible to SBV infection.     

Schmallenberg Virus in Belgium: Estimation of Impact in Cattle and Sheep Herds

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) emerged during summer 2011. SBV induced an unspecific syndrome in cattle and congenital signs (abortions, stillbirths and malformations) in domestic ruminants. To study the impact of SBV in Belgium, a phone survey was conducted upon September 2012. Hereto two groups of cattle farmers (A and B) and two groups of sheep farmers (C and D) were randomly selected. Farms from groups A (n = 53) and C (n = 42) received SBV‐positive result at RT‐PCR in the Belgian National Reference Laboratory (NRL). Farms from groups B (n = 29) and D (n = 44) never sent suspected samples to NRL for SBV analysis but were however presumed seropositive for SBV after the survey. Questionnaires related to reproduction parameters and clinical signs observed in newborn and adult animals were designed and addressed to farmers. As calculated on a basis of farmers’ observations, 4% of calves in group A and 0.5% in group B were reported aborted, stillborn or deformed due to SBV in 2011–2012. The impact as observed by sheep farmers was substantially higher with 19% of lambs in group C and 11% in group D that were reported aborted, stillborn or deformed due to SBV in 2011–2012. Interestingly, abortions or stillbirths were not clear consequences of SBV outbreak in cattle farms, and the birth of a deformed animal was an essential condition to suspect SBV presence in cattle and sheep farms. This study contributes to a better knowledge of the impact of the SBV epidemic. The results suggest that SBV impacted Belgian herds mostly by the birth of deformed calves, stillborn lambs and deformed lambs. This work also demonstrates that the birth of a deformed calf or lamb was a trigger for the farmer to suspect the presence of SBV and send samples to NRL for further analyses.     

Serosurvey for Schmallenberg Virus in Alpine Wild Ungulates

Because Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first reported in domestic ruminants in Northern Italy in February 2012, we conducted a serosurvey to assess the presence of SBV‐specific antibodies in free‐ranging alpine ruminants. The tested serum samples were from chamois (23) and red deer (352) hunted from 2007 to 2013. All of the serum samples collected through September, 2012, tested negative, whereas a single chamois serum and 21 red deer sera taken during the 2012–2013 hunting season tested positive for the presence of SBV antibodies. Because this serosurvey is suggestive of an active SBV circulation in Alpine wildlife, targeted surveillance should be performed on wild ruminants to monitor the spread of the virus and to assess the epidemiological role of wildlife at the interface with domestic animals.