Seroprevalence of brucellosis in goats and sheep in Thailand: Results from the Thai National Brucellosis Surveillance System from 2013 to 2015

In Thailand, brucellosis re‐emerged in humans in 2003 and is considered a public health risk to goat farmers as the disease is endemic in small ruminants. The Thai Department of Livestock Development (DLD ) established a nationwide surveillance system for brucellosis in goats and sheep in 1997. Using data from this surveillance system, we describe the seroprevalence of brucellosis from 2013 to 2015 in small ruminants and the spatial distribution of the disease throughout Thailand. Surveillance data collected included the number of animals and herds tested, the province of the animal and herd and the laboratory results. Seroprevalence was estimated at both the animal and herd levels. During the 3‐year period, 443,561 goats and sheep were tested for brucellosis by the DLD throughout Thailand using the Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT ) and the enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay test for Brucella . Among the 3 years, 2013 had the highest proportion of herds that tested positive for brucellosis at 13.80% (95% CI, 12.52, 15.16). Overall, this study found that brucellosis seroprevalence in small ruminants is decreasing throughout Thailand. However, there is variability in the spread of the disease with provinces in the eastern and western regions of Thailand having higher proportions of animals and herds testing positive. Overall provinces in the south had the lowest proportion of animals and herds testing positive for brucellosis. Periodic review of surveillance data documents the impact of the current brucellosis control programme and supports a targeted response in higher prevalence regions when there are limited financial resources for control measures.     

Association of brucellosis to abortions in humans and domestic ruminants in Kagera ecosystem,Tanzania

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease of socio‐economic importance. Understanding the association of this disease with pregnancy outcome has the potential of contributing to the reduction of its reproductive burden in humans and animals among pastoral communities in Tanzania. A prospective cohort study was conducted in Kagera Region on pregnant women (n = 76) and gravid ruminants (121 cattle, 125 goats and 111 sheep). Exposed and non‐exposed groups to brucellosis were followed for 6 months (from 15 November 2017 to 15 April 2018). Sera were collected and analysed using Rose Bengal Test (RBT) and Fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) test. Measures of effect, univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were computed. Positivity to both RBT and FPA tests was 21% (95% CI: 12.5–32) in pregnant women and 5% (95% CI: 3.1–8) in gravid ruminants. Among aborted cases, four women (out of nine), two cows (out of seven), two goats (out of 26) and zero sheep (out of 11) were positive to brucellosis. The abortion rate in humans and ruminants was 11.8% and 12.3%, respectively. Seropositivity to brucellosis was similar in aborted and non‐aborted cases in humans (p = .08) and in ruminants (p = .2). At the population level, brucellosis was associated with abortions (population attributable risk: PAR) at 3.5% in pregnant women and at 0.5% in gravid ruminants in the study area. Infections to brucellosis were increased in exposed pregnant women (OR = 19; 95% CI: 1.8–203, p = .01) and in cattle (OR = 11; 95% CI: 1.3–88, p = .02). There is an indication that brucellosis could be contributing to abortions in pregnant women and domestic ruminants Kagera Region. Molecular tools could support more the results from serological tests to avoid cross‐reaction with other pathogen agents. Control of brucellosis in animals is likely to reduce the threat of abortions in humans.     

The Prevalence of Brucellosis in Cattle,Goats and Humans in Rural Uganda: A Comparative Study

A cross‐sectional study was conducted to determine the presence of brucellosis in cattle, goats and humans in farms from south‐western Uganda and identify risk factors associated with brucellosis in these three host groups. Data and serum samples were collected from 768 cattle, 315 goats and 236 humans, with 635 samples of bovine milk, from 70 farms in two different study areas in south‐western Uganda. Sera from livestock were tested with the Rose Bengal Plate test, using B. abortus and B. melitensis antigens, and human sera were tested with a commercial IgG/IgM lateral flow assay. Milk samples were tested using the OIE‐approved milk ring test. Screening tests for brucellosis were positive in 14% of cattle serum, 29% of bovine milk, 17% of goat serum and 11% of human serum samples. There were significant differences in the test prevalence of brucellosis by study site, with levels higher in the study area near Lake Mburo National Park than in the study area near Queen Elizabeth National Park. Multivariable regression models identified risk factors associated with increasing test positivity at the individual and farm levels for cattle, goats and humans. Positive associations were seen between increasing seropositivity of brucellosis in goats, cattle and humans. Results of multivariable analyses suggest that improvements in farm biosecurity and hygiene may reduce the risk of brucellosis on the farm and suggest a role for ticks in bovine brucellosis. Although cattle are the focus of brucellosis control in Uganda, the significant associations between seropositivity in humans and seropositivity in goats suggest that brucellosis in goats may be an important contributor to the epidemiology of the disease on the farm.     

‘La fiebre de Malta’: An Interface of Farmers and Caprine Brucellosis Control Policies in the Bajío Region,Mexico

This article shows that socio‐economic factors, defined here as practices, knowledge, interests, beliefs and experiences have a role in the adoption of brucellosis control strategies in the Bajío region, Mexico. We combined qualitative and quantitative methods to show that socio‐economic factors with regard to goat husbandry and brucellosis control are not taken into account in the current policy to combat the disease in Mexico. Farmers ranked constraints like the price of goat milk more important than the control of the disease. The impact of brucellosis in goats is hidden to farmers, and the term brucellosis is still a strange name to them; it is better known as ‘la fiebre de Malta’ (Malta fever), which farmers are aware of and which they avoid by not drinking goat milk. Brucellosis control measures cause losses such as abortion due to vaccination and ear infections due to ear tagging. In the villages of the state of Michoacán, the uptake of a vaccination and testing programme was almost complete because it was offered for free, whereas in villages of Jalisco, vaccination was not adopted thoroughly because the cost of vaccination was high for farmers and because of a lack of veterinarians offering the service. Neither compensation for culling suspected infected goats does exist nor the infrastructure, like slaughterhouses, to ensure that goats that are brucellosis seropositive are not resold to neighbouring farmers. This article disputes the idea that brucellosis is confined to the lack of awareness and participation of farmers in control measures, but rather that policies are promulgated without a good knowledge of goat husbandry and farmers’ perceptions. We claim that governmental authorities should reformulate the policy to take into account socio‐economic factors shaping farmers’ behaviour so that effective control measures will be adopted by goat farmers.     

Control of Bovine Brucellosis from Persistently Infected Holdings Using RB51 Vaccination with Test‐and‐Slaughter: A Comparative Case Report from a High Incidence Area in Portugal

Bovine brucellosis due to Brucella abortus infection causes significant reproductive and production losses in cattle and is a major zoonosis. Eradication of this disease has proved difficult to achieve in Portugal where it still occurs in some regions despite an ongoing national eradication programme. In 2004, the Alentejo region, a major cattle producing area, reported one of the highest levels of bovine brucellosis in the country, especially in one divisional area. In that area, bovine brucellosis was particularly problematic in a holding of ten herds, the largest extensive cattle unit in the country, which remained infected despite an extensive test‐and‐slaughter programme and depopulation of five herds. A 5‐year programme of RB51 vaccination with biannual test‐and‐slaughter was thus implemented in 2004. The apparent animal seroprevalence decreased from 19% (646/3,400) to 3% (88/2930) on the third herd‐level test and remained below 0.8% (27/3324) after the fourth test. After the tenth test, the holding had a prevalence of 0.1% (2/2332) and only one herd remained positive with a within‐herd prevalence of 1.1% (2/177). The results were compared to all other herds (n = 10) in the divisional area that were also persistently infected but were subject only to test‐and‐slaughter before being depopulated. In these herds, the strategy of test‐and‐slaughter did not reduce the prevalence, which remained significantly higher than the vaccinated group (median = 0.48% and 8.5% in vaccinated versus non‐vaccinated herds; Wilcoxon rank sum test; P < 0.01). The success of this pilot programme in continental Portugal provided a valuable case study to the official veterinary services by illustrating the value of RB51 vaccination with parallel testing and improved biosecurity as a comprehensive and sustainable strategy for bovine brucellosis control in persistently infected herds.     

Post‐epidemic investigation of Schmallenberg virus in wild ruminants in Slovenia

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a vector‐borne virus belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus within the Bunyaviridae family. SBV emerged in Europe in 2011 and was characterized by epidemics of abortions, stillbirths and congenital malformations in domestic ruminants. The first evidence of SBV infection in Slovenia was from an ELISA‐positive sample from a cow collected in August 2012; clinical manifestations of SBV disease in sheep and cattle were observed in 2013, with SBV RNA detected in samples collected from a total of 28 herds. A potential re‐emergence of SBV in Europe is predicted to occur when population‐level immunity declines. SBV is also capable of infecting several wild ruminant species, although clinical disease has not yet been described in these species. Data on SBV‐positive wild ruminants suggest that these species might be possible sources for the re‐emergence of SBV. The aim of this study was to investigate whether SBV was circulating among wild ruminants in Slovenia and whether these species can act as a virus reservoir. A total of 281 blood and spleen samples from wild ruminants, including roe deer, red deer, chamois and European mouflon, were collected during the 2017–2018 hunting season. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against SBV by ELISA; the overall seroprevalence was 18.1%. Seropositive samples were reported from all over the country in examined animal species from 1 to 15 years of age. Spleen samples from the seropositive animals and serum samples from the seronegative animals were tested for the presence of SBV RNA using real‐time RT‐PCR; all the samples tested negative. Based on the results of the seropositive animals, it was demonstrated that SBV was circulating in wild ruminant populations in Slovenia even after the epidemic, as almost half (23/51) of the seropositive animals were 1 or 2 years old.     

Schmallenberg Virus in Belgium: Estimation of Impact in Cattle and Sheep Herds

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) emerged during summer 2011. SBV induced an unspecific syndrome in cattle and congenital signs (abortions, stillbirths and malformations) in domestic ruminants. To study the impact of SBV in Belgium, a phone survey was conducted upon September 2012. Hereto two groups of cattle farmers (A and B) and two groups of sheep farmers (C and D) were randomly selected. Farms from groups A (n = 53) and C (n = 42) received SBV‐positive result at RT‐PCR in the Belgian National Reference Laboratory (NRL). Farms from groups B (n = 29) and D (n = 44) never sent suspected samples to NRL for SBV analysis but were however presumed seropositive for SBV after the survey. Questionnaires related to reproduction parameters and clinical signs observed in newborn and adult animals were designed and addressed to farmers. As calculated on a basis of farmers’ observations, 4% of calves in group A and 0.5% in group B were reported aborted, stillborn or deformed due to SBV in 2011–2012. The impact as observed by sheep farmers was substantially higher with 19% of lambs in group C and 11% in group D that were reported aborted, stillborn or deformed due to SBV in 2011–2012. Interestingly, abortions or stillbirths were not clear consequences of SBV outbreak in cattle farms, and the birth of a deformed animal was an essential condition to suspect SBV presence in cattle and sheep farms. This study contributes to a better knowledge of the impact of the SBV epidemic. The results suggest that SBV impacted Belgian herds mostly by the birth of deformed calves, stillborn lambs and deformed lambs. This work also demonstrates that the birth of a deformed calf or lamb was a trigger for the farmer to suspect the presence of SBV and send samples to NRL for further analyses.     

Glucocorticoid Metabolites Inhibit the Metabolism of Androstenedione in Red Blood Cells of Ruminants

The present work aimed to confirm that erythrocytes of ruminants, in general, are capable of converting 17‐oxo to 17‐hydroxysteroids. Special attention was given to 11‐oxoaetiocholanolone (a cortisol metabolite) and its possible interaction with androstenedione as substrates of 17‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17‐OH SDH). Blood samples were taken from cattle, sheep and goats (n = 3). Aliquots (100 or 300 μl) of washed red blood cell (RBC) suspensions were incubated in triplicates with Ringer's/glucose solution (1 ml) containing either androstenedione (10 ng) or 11‐oxoaetiocholanolone (100 ng) or a mixture of 10 ng of each. Incubations were performed on a shaker at 38°C for 10, 20, 40 or 80 min, respectively. After centrifugation the supernatants were stored at −24°C until analysis. Concentrations of added steroids were measured with enzyme‐immunoassays to monitor their decrease. The 17‐OH SDH activity of RBC was highest in cattle followed by goats and sheep, and 11‐oxoaetiocholanolone was a better substrate than androstenedione. Concentrations of the latter decreased more pronounced, if incubated alone. High performance liquid chromatography separations of the metabolites of 17‐oxosteroids revealed the presence of both, a 17β‐ and 17α‐hydroxylated product formed by erythrocytes of sheep and goats, but only the latter in cattle. The results demonstrated that 11‐oxoaetiocholanolone was also a substrate of RBC 17‐OH SDH and inhibited the metabolism of androstenedione. Therefore, in ruminants, there might be an interaction between cortisol metabolites and gonadal steroids on the level of peripheral steroid metabolism.     

Serological Detection of Antibodies to Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus in Large Ruminants

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an economically important disease of small ruminants with a rapidly expanding geographical distribution. Peste des petits ruminants virus may manifest in a variety of ways with disease ranging from acute to subclinical. We investigated the exposure of large ruminants to PPRV in areas where the virus is endemic in the small ruminant population by assessing the serological status of groups of animals. This study focused on the Punjab province of Pakistan as an area where the virus is endemic and where mixed farming practices occur enabling close interactions between small and large ruminant populations. An overall PPR seropositivity was detected in 10.0% of cattle and 14.16% of buffaloes. Following an assessment of serological profiles in large ruminants within different age groups, a maximum seroprevalence was observed in cattle (17.5%) and buffaloes (22.5%) over 2 years of age indicating the potential utility of sampling large ruminant populations for PPR serosurveillance. The large ruminants sampled between one and two years of age had similar levels of seropositivity within populations with 11.2% and 16.2% of animals being seropositive, respectively. Current PPR vaccination strategies do not enable the differentiation between infected and vaccinated small ruminants, and as such, the serological surveillance of sheep and goats is of little value. When considering eradication programmes for PPRV, this factor is of great significance. However, where large and small ruminants are farmed together, serological surveillance of large ruminants may provide a snapshot of virus infection within populations where mild disease is present or where small ruminants are regularly vaccinated.     

Bovine Brucellosis in Argentina and Bordering Countries: Update

Bovine brucellosis is a zoonotic disease spread worldwide. The infection in cattle is predominantly caused by Brucella abortus and is usually detected in pregnant females through abortions. The disease is endemic in Argentina; however, infection in humans is underestimated and often not reported. The prevalence of bovine brucellosis in countries bordering Argentina is quite variable: 0.04% in Uruguay, 10.20% in the north and 0.06% in the south of Brazil, 0.2% in Chile, 3.15% in Paraguay and 2.27% in Bolivia. In 1999, the Argentine National Control and Eradication Program was implemented. Its strategies include identification of vaccinated animals, compulsory vaccination with B. abortus S19 of 100% of 3‐ to 8‐month‐old females, negative serological tests before animal movements and categorization of farms in terms of their brucellosis status. The epidemiological surveillance in milk is performed through the milk ring test and the indirect ELISA. The result of a national brucellosis survey performed in 2004 indicates that 12.4% (95% CI: 10.89–14.0) of Argentine beef farms are seropositive to Brucella and that the apparent prevalence in cattle is 2.10% (95% CI: 1.90–2.40). The official serological diagnostic tests are as follows: buffered plate antigen test, as screening, serum agglutination test, 2‐mercaptoethanol and fluorescence polarization assay, competitive ELISA, as confirmatory tests, and complement fixation test, as definitive test. Santa Fe and a district in Córdoba have ‘Outstanding Plans’. Tierra del Fuego is a ‘Zone free from bovine brucellosis’. One question arising when studying the Argentine situation is why the disease remains endemic if good regulations exist to control and eradicate it. In future, some different aspects might be evaluated to understand it, and further studies should be performed to prioritize, select and refine control strategies.     

Coxiella burnetii Infections in Small Ruminants and Humans in Switzerland

The recent Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands raised concerns about the potential risk of outbreaks in other European countries. In Switzerland, the prevalence of Q fever in animals and humans has not been studied in recent years. In this study, we describe the current situation with respect to Coxiella (C.) burnetii infections in small ruminants and humans in Switzerland, as a basis for future epidemiological investigations and public health risk assessments. Specific objectives of this cross‐sectional study were to (i) estimate the seroprevalence of C. burnetii in sheep and goats, (ii) quantify the amount of bacteria shed during abortion and (iii) analyse temporal trends in human C. burnetii infections. The seroprevalence of C. burnetii in small ruminants was determined by commercial ELISA from a representative sample of 100 sheep flocks and 72 goat herds. Herd‐level seroprevalence was 5.0% (95% CI: 1.6–11.3) for sheep and 11.1% (95% CI: 4.9–20.7) for goats. Animal‐level seroprevalence was 1.8% (95% CI: 0.8–3.4) for sheep and 3.4% (95% CI: 1.7–6) for goats. The quantification of C. burnetii in 97 ovine and caprine abortion samples by real‐time PCR indicated shedding of >10⁴ bacteria/g in 13.4% of all samples tested. To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting C. burnetii quantities in a large number of small ruminant abortion samples. Annual human Q fever serology data were provided by five major Swiss laboratories. Overall, seroprevalence in humans ranged between 1.7% and 3.5% from 2007 to 2011, and no temporal trends were observed. Interestingly, the two laboratories with significantly higher seroprevalences are located in the regions with the largest goat populations as well as, for one laboratory, with the highest livestock density in Switzerland. However, a direct link between animal and human infection data could not be established in this study.     

Host range and geographical distribution of Babesia sp. Mymensingh

Bovine babesiosis represents a serious threat to the cattle industry in the tropics and subtropics. Although several Babesia species infect cattle, only B. bovis, B. bigemina and B. divergens are known to cause clinical babesiosis. However, our recent study demonstrated that the newly discovered Babesia sp. Mymensingh might be a virulent species capable of causing clinical babesiosis in cattle. The objective of this study was to determine the host range and geographical distribution of Babesia sp. Mymensingh on a global scale. A total of 2,860 archived DNA samples from 2,263 cattle in Sri Lanka (n = 672), the Philippines (n = 408), Vietnam (n = 460), Uganda (n = 409), Brazil (n = 164) and Argentina (n = 150); 419 buffalo in Sri Lanka (n = 327) and Vietnam (n = 92); and 127 goats and 51 sheep in Vietnam were screened using a Babesia sp. Mymensingh‐specific PCR assay. Babesia sp. Mymensingh infection was detected in cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats. Cattle of all countries surveyed in this study except Brazil were found to be infected with Babesia sp. Mymensingh. The highest positive rates were recorded in cattle from the Philippines (11.3%) and Vietnam (9.6%), followed by Argentina (4.7%), Sri Lanka (1.5%) and Uganda (1.0%). Buffalo were found to be infected with this parasite in Sri Lanka (1.2%) and Vietnam (10.9%). Unexpectedly, Babesia sp. Mymensingh was also detected in sheep (2.0%) and goats (1.3%) from Vietnam. These findings were confirmed by PCR amplicon sequencing. In conclusion, our present findings indicate that Babesia sp. Mymensingh, which infects cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats, is endemic in Asia, Africa and South America.     

Bluetongue Serotype 2 and 9 Modified Live Vaccine Viruses as Causative Agents of Abortion in Livestock: A Retrospective Analysis in Italy

The recent outbreak caused by Schmallenberg virus, which affected sheep, goats and cattle in Europe, highlighted the importance of having a robust surveillance plan capable of monitoring abortions and malformations in the livestock offspring. In this context, bluetongue viruses (BTVs) represented and represent one of the major threats to the European livestock industry. Aiming to improve the understanding on BTV cross placental transmission and serotype involvement, in this retrospective study foetal spleens and/or brains of 663 ovines, 429 bovines, 155 goats and 17 buffaloes were tested for the presence of BTV by virus isolation. BTV vaccine strains were isolated from 31 foetuses (2.4%; 95% CI: 1.7–3.4%): 24 (3.6%; 95% CI: 2.4–5.3%) from ovine foetal tissues; 6 (1.4%; 95% CI: 0.6–3.0%) from bovine foetal tissues and 1 (0.6%; 95% CI: 0.2–3.5%) from the spleen of a caprine foetus. All foetuses were from animals vaccinated with either BTV‐2 or BTV‐2, and BTV‐9 modified live vaccines (MLVs) produced by Onderstepoort Biological Products (OBP), South Africa. Among the 31 isolated vaccine strains, serotype 9 (n = 28) was more frequently isolated (P < 0.05) than serotype 2 (n = 3). In two cases infectious vaccine strains were found in the foetal tissues 2 months after the vaccine administration. Other pathogens known to be causative agents of abortion in ruminants were not detected nor isolated. This study demonstrates, for the first time, that BTV‐2 and BTV‐9 vaccine strains are able to cross the placental barrier of sheep, cattle and goats. BTV‐2 and BTV‐9 vaccine strains are able to infect foetuses and cause abortions or malformations depending on the period of pregnancy at the time of vaccination.     

Outbreak investigations and molecular characterization of foot‐and‐mouth disease viruses circulating in south‐west Niger

In Niger, the epidemiological situation regarding foot‐and‐mouth disease is unclear as many outbreaks are unreported. This study aimed (i) to identify Foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV ) strains currently circulating in cattle herds, and (ii) to identify risk factors associated with Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD )‐seropositive animals in clinical outbreaks. Epithelial tissues (n  = 25) and sera (n  = 227) were collected from cattle in eight districts of the south‐western part of Niger. Testing of clinical material revealed the presence of FMDV serotype O that was characterized within the O/WEST AFRICA topotype. The antigenic relationship between one of the FMDV isolates from Niger (O/NGR /4/2015) and three reference vaccine strains was determined by the two‐dimensional virus neutralization test (2dmVNT ), revealing a close antigenic match between the field isolate from Niger and three FMDV serotype O vaccine strains. Serological analyses using a non‐structural protein (NSP ) test provided evidence for previous FMDV infection in 70% (158/227) of the sera tested. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that only the herd composition (presence of both cattle and small ruminants) was significantly associated with FMDV seropositivity as defined by NSP ‐positive results (p ‐value = .006). Of these positive sera, subsequent testing by liquid‐phase blocking ELISA (LPBE ) showed that 86% (136/158) were positive for one (or more) of four FMDV serotypes (A, O, Southern African Territories (SAT ) 1 and SAT 2). This study provides epidemiological information about FMD in the south‐western part of Niger and highlights the complex transboundary nature of FMD in Africa. These findings may help to develop effective control and preventive strategies for FMD in Niger as well, as other countries in West Africa.     

First detection and molecular identification of Sarcocystis spp. in small ruminants in North‐West Tunisia

Sarcocystosis is a parasitic disease caused by varying Sarcocystis species infecting humans and animals. It is commonly found in small ruminants causing pathogenic effects. This contributes to detrimental economic loss for local farmers and the local economy due this disease. Although the distribution of Sarcocystis can be found all over the world, the species infecting small ruminants in Tunisia is still unknown. Through this study, we aim to estimate the molecular prevalence of natural infection with Sarcocystis spp. in sheep and goats using molecular identification. Also, phylogenetic analyses were used to identify the different species of this parasite infecting small ruminants in northern Tunisia for the first time. DNA was extracted from 198 and 121, sheep and goats meat samples, respectively. The molecular prevalence of Sarcocystis spp. in sheep and goats was 58.6% (116/198) and 50.4% (61/121), respectively. Compared to the Noire de Thibar and cross‐breeds, the Barbarine sheep had the highest infection prevalence (63.4%) (p  =  .004). Five of the 116 positive samples were sequenced identifying Sarcocystis tenella from sheep. For goats, the sequencing results showed that five positive PCR products belonged to Sarcocystis capracanis species.     

Benefit‐Cost Analysis of Foot and Mouth Disease Control in Large Ruminants in Cambodia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Cambodia and throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion and causes significant losses to rural smallholders owning the majority of the national large ruminant population. However, due to underreporting, paucity of knowledge of FMD impacts, limited veterinary capacity and deficits of data available for analysis, the quantifiable benefits of a national FMD control programme are unknown. To address this deficit, existing literature and research data from the ‘Best practice health and husbandry of cattle, Cambodia' project conducted between 2007 and 2012, were used to develop a three‐phase analysis framework to: assess the impacts of the recent widespread FMD epizootic in Cambodia in 2010, conduct a value chain analysis of the large ruminant market and estimate the costs and benefits for a national large ruminant biannual FMD vaccination programme. A trader survey conducted in 2010–2011 provided cattle and buffalo value chain information and was matched to village herd structure data to calculate a total large ruminant farm‐gate value of USD 1.271 billion in 2010. Monte Carlo simulation modelling that implemented a 5‐year biannual vaccination programme at a cost of USD 6.3 an animal per year identified a benefit‐cost ratio of 1.40 (95% CI 0.96–2.20) when accounting for recent prices of cattle and buffalo in Cambodia and based on an expected annual incidence of 0.2 (assuming one major epizootic in the 5‐year vaccination programme). Given that the majority of the large ruminants are owned by rural smallholders, and mostly the poor are involved in agricultural employment, the successful implementation of an FMD control programme in Cambodia would be expected to avoid estimated losses of USD 135 million; equivalent to 10.6% of the 2010 farm‐gate value and contributing to important reductions in rural poverty and food insecurity.     

Tuberculosis,Brucellosis and Leucosis in Cattle: A Cost Description of Eradication Programmes in the Region of Lazio,Italy

The eradication of tuberculosis, brucellosis and leucosis in cattle has not yet been achieved in the entire Italian territory. The region of Lazio, Central Italy, represents an interesting case study to evaluate the evolution of costs for these eradication programmes, as in some provinces the eradication has been officially achieved, in some others the prevalence has been close to zero for years, and in still others disease outbreaks have been continuously reported. The objectives of this study were i) to describe the costs for the eradication programmes for tuberculosis, brucellosis and leucosis in cattle carried out in Lazio between 2007 and 2011, ii) to calculate the ratio between the financial contribution of the European Union (EU) for the eradication programmes and the estimated total costs and iii) to estimate the potential savings that can be made when a province gains the certification of freedom from disease. For the i) and ii) objectives, data were collected from official sources and a costing procedure was applied from the perspective of the Regional Health Service. For the iii) objective, a Bayesian AR(1) regression was used to evaluate the average percentage reduction in costs for a province that gained the certification. The total cost for the eradication programmes adjusted for inflation to 1 January 2016 was estimated at 18 919 797 euro (5th and 95th percentiles of the distribution: 18 325 050–19 552 080 euro). When a province gained the certification of freedom from disease, costs decreased on average by (median of the posterior distribution) 47.5%, 54.5% and 54.9% for the eradication programmes of tuberculosis, brucellosis and leucosis, respectively. Information on possible savings from the reduction of control costs can help policy makers operating under budget constraints to justify the use of additional resources for the final phase of eradication.     

Evaluation of an IGM‐specific ELISA for early detection of bluetongue virus infections in domestic ruminants sera

Competitive‐ELISA (c‐ELISA) is the most widely used serological test for the detection of Bluetongue virus (BTV) viral protein 7 (VP7) antibodies (Ab). However, these BTV c‐ELISAs cannot to distinguish between IgG and IgM. IgM Ab are generated shortly after the primary immune response against an infectious agent, indicating a recent infection or exposure to antigens, such as after vaccination. Because the BTV genome or anti‐VP7 Ab can be detected in ruminant blood months after infection, BTV diagnostic tools cannot discriminate between recent and old infections. In this study, we evaluated an IgM‐capture ELISA prototype to detect ruminant anti‐BTV VP7 IgM on 1,650 serum samples from cattle, sheep, or goats. Animals were BTV‐naive, infected, or/and vaccinated with BTV‐1, ‐2, ‐4, ‐8, ‐9, ‐16, or ‐27, and we also included 30 sera from cattle infected with the Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) serotype 6. Results demonstrated that this ELISA kit is specific and can detect the presence of IgM with satisfactory diagnostic specificity and sensitivity from 1 to 5 weeks after BTV infection in domestic ruminants (for goats and cattle; for sheep, at least up to 24 days). The peak of anti‐VP7 IgM was reached when the level of infectious viruses and BTV RNA in blood were the highest. The possibility of detecting BTV‐RNA in IgM‐positive sera allows the amplification and sequencing of the partial RNA segment 2 (encoding the serotype specific to VP2) to determine the causative BTV serotype/strain. Therefore, BTV IgM ELISA can detect the introduction of BTV (or EHDV) in an area with BTV‐seropositive domestic animals regardless of their serological BTV status. This approach may also be of particular interest for retrospective epidemiological studies on frozen serum samples.     

A multifaceted risk model of brucellosis at the human–animal interface in Egypt

Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonosis affecting humans and a wide range of domesticated and wild animal species. An important element for effective disease containment is to improve knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of afflicted communities. This study aimed to assess the KAP related to brucellosis at the human–animal interface in an endemic area of Egypt and to identify the risk factors for human infection. A matched case–control study was conducted at the central fever hospitals located in six governorates in northern Egypt. Face‐to‐face interviews with cases and controls were conducted using a structured questionnaire. In total, 40.7% of the participants owned farm animals in their households. The overall mean practice score regarding animal husbandry, processing and consumption of milk and dairy products were significantly lower among cases compared with controls (−12.7 ± 18.1 vs. 0.68 ± 14.2, respectively; p < .001). Perceived barriers for notification of animal infection/abortion were predominate among cases and positively correlated with participants’ education. The predictors of having brucellosis infection were consumption of unpasteurized milk or raw dairy products and practicing animal husbandry. Applying protective measures against infection significantly reduced its risk. A model predicting risk factors for brucellosis among those who own animal showed that frequent abortions per animal increased the chance for brucellosis infection among human cases by 50‐fold (95% CI: 8.8–276.9), whereas the use of protective measures in animal care reduced the odds (OR = 0.11 [95% CI: 0.03–0.45]). In conclusion, consumption of unprocessed dairy products was equally important as contact with infected/aborted animals as major risk factors for Brucella spp. infection among humans in Egypt. There is poor knowledge, negative attitudes and risky behaviours among villagers which can perpetuate the risk of brucellosis transmission at the human–animal interface. This supports the need for integrating health education into the national brucellosis control programme.     

Investigations into the Cause of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease Virus Seropositive Small Ruminants in Cyprus During 2007

In 2007, serological evidence for foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) infection was found as a result of differential diagnostic testing of Cypriot sheep suspected to be infected with bluetongue or contagious ecthyma. Seropositive sheep and goats were subsequently uncovered on ten geographically clustered flocks, while cattle and pigs in neighbouring herds were all seronegative. These antibodies were specific for serotype‐O FMD virus, reacting with both structural and non‐structural (NS) FMD viral proteins. However, no FMD virus could be recovered from the seropositive flocks. FMD had not been recorded in Cyprus since 1964 and there has been no vaccination programme since 1984. Since all the seropositive animals were at least 3 years old and home‐bred, it was concluded that infection had occurred approximately 3 years previously had passed un‐noticed and died out spontaneously. It therefore appears that antibodies to FMD virus NS proteins can still be detected around 3 years after infection of small ruminants, but that virus carriers cannot be detected at this time. This unusual situation of finding evidence of historical infection in a FMD‐free country caused considerable disruption and alarm and posed questions about the definition of what constitutes a FMD outbreak.