Unrecorded alcohol consumption in Russia: toxic denaturants and disinfectants pose additional risks

In 2005, 30% of all alcohol consumption in Russia was unrecorded. This paper describes the chemical composition of unrecorded and low cost alcohol, including a toxicological evaluation. Alcohol products (n=22) from both recorded and unrecorded sources were obtained from three Russian cities (Saratov, Lipetsk and Irkutsk) and were chemically analyzed. Unrecorded alcohols included homemade samogons, medicinal alcohols and surrogate alcohols. Analysis included alcoholic strength, levels of volatile compounds (methanol, acetaldehyde, higher alcohols), ethyl carbamate, diethyl phthalate (DEP) and polyhexamethyleneguanidine hydrochloride (PHMG). Single samples showed contamination with DEP (275-1269 mg/l) and PHMG (515 mg/l) above levels of toxicological concern. Our detailed chemical analysis of Russian alcohols showed that the composition of vodka, samogon and medicinal alcohols generally did not raise major public health concerns other than for ethanol. It was shown, however, that concentration levels of DEP and PHMG in some surrogate alcohols make these samples unfit for human consumption as even moderate drinking would exceed acceptable daily intakes.     

Relationship between ALDH2 genotypes and choice of alcoholic beverages]

There are obviously individual differences in the choice for many kinds of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, whisky, sake, cocktail and so on. It is generally believed that these differences are related to acquired preferences in taste and smell, in addition to life style. However, the basis of these acquired preferences is not yet understood. It has been shown that around half of Japanese show a marked sensitivity to alcoholic beverages because of aversive reactions due to a catalytic deficiency in ALDH2 isozyme. Therefore, differences in ALDH2 genotypes may possibly influence the choice of alcoholic beverages because the individuals possessing the ALDH2*2 gene may prefer the alcoholic beverages containing lower concentrations of alcohol. A large population survey (320 males, 132 females) was conducted using questionnaires to investigate the relationship between ALDH2 genotypes and the choice of alcoholic beverages. Individuals with the homozygote of ALDH2*1 generally showed more preference for alcoholic beverages containing a higher concentration of alcohol than those with the heterozygote or the homozygote of ALDH2*2. It was noted that the latter groups preferred whisky and water, and sweet cocktails. Also, the choices for beer, whisky, and sake were significantly different between both genders. Our data suggested that individuals with ALDH2*2 prefer beverages with lower concentrations of alcohol due to an aversive reaction after drinking, and that there are obvious gender differences in the consumption as well as the choice for many alcoholic beverages.     

Defining a tolerable concentration of methanol in alcoholic drinks

Methanol, a potent toxicant in humans, occurs naturally at a low level in most alcoholic beverages without causing harm. However, illicit drinks made from "industrial methylated spirits" [5% (v/v) methanol:95% (v/v) ethanol] can cause severe and even fatal illness. Since documentation of a no-adverse-effect level for methanol is nonexistent in the literature a key question, from the public health perspective, is what is the maximum concentration of methanol in an alcoholic drink that an adult human could consume without risking toxicity due to its methanol content? Published information about methanol-intoxicated patients is reviewed and combined with findings in studies in volunteers given small doses of methanol, as well as occupational exposure limits (OELs), to indicate a tolerable ("safe") daily dose of methanol in an adult as 2 g and a toxic dose as 8 g. The simultaneous ingestion of ethanol has no appreciable effect on the proposed "safe" and "toxic" doses when considering exposure over several hours. Thus, assuming that an adult consumes 4 x 25-ml standard measures of a drink containing 40% alcohol by volume over a period of 2 h, the maximum tolerable concentration (MTC) of methanol in such a drink would be 2% (v/v) by volume. However, this value only allows a safety factor of 4 to cover variation in the volume consumed and for the effects of malnutrition (i.e., folate deficiency), ill health and other personal factors (i.e., ethnicity). In contrast, the current EU general limit for naturally occurring methanol of 10 g methanol/l ethanol [which equates to 0.4% (v/v) methanol at 40% alcohol] provides a greater margin of safety.     

The measurement of drinking patterns and alcohol problems in Nigeria

As in most other societies, alcoholic beverages have been consumed in what is present-day Nigeria for a long time. Before the arrival of western factory-made drinks, alcohol consumption was limited to a variety of beverages produced from palm trees and food grains. Today, beer has become the most popular drink in the country but traditional beverages (palm wine, burukutu, ogogoro, pito) are still widely consumed in both rural and urban areas. Though research has shown that heavy drinking seems to be the norm among those who drink any type of alcohol, there is no clear association between drinking and social or health problems. On the other hand, certain types of beverages are linked with positive attributes. Despite their potential significance, these and other issues have not received the attention they deserve in the alcohol research literature on Nigeria and other African countries. The focus of this paper is on the need to take into consideration relevant measurement issues (e.g., container and serving size, alcohol contents, drinking expectancies, perceived risks associated with the consumption of different types of alcoholic beverages, as well as reasons for drinking) in alcohol research. It is suggested that a better understanding of these and related factors is necessary for the advancement of alcohol epidemiology in the country.     

Peer influence in a micro-perspective: Imitation of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages

Ample experimental research has found evidence for imitation of alcohol consumption in social encounters. However, these studies cannot reveal whether imitation is specifically related to alcohol and not to consumption in general. We investigated whether imitation is more evident when peers drink alcohol compared to other beverages. We observed sipping behavior during a 30-minute interaction between same-sex confederates and participants in an ad lib semi-naturalistic drinking context (bar lab). We expected a stronger imitation effect when both participant and confederate drank alcoholic beverages. A random occasion multilevel analysis was conducted to take repeated measurements into account. Findings showed that participants imitated the sips of the confederates, but that the likelihood of participants imitating a sip was lower when confederates were drinking alcoholic beverages and participants non-alcoholic beverages compared to when both were consuming alcohol.     

The standard drink and alcohol consumption

The term 'standard drink' is commonly used when researchers collect alcohol consumption data and when educators create campaigns to encourage people to drink responsibly. However, little is known about community knowledge of the term 'standard drink' or what it represents in terms of what people are drinking in their own homes or on unlicensed premises. This study measured the amounts of a variety of alcoholic beverages that a sample of Perth metropolitan people use when drinking on unlicensed premises. The level of knowledge of the alcohol content of a variety of beverages and the knowledge of the term standard drink and what it represents in terms of commonly consumed beverages was also measured. The results showed that knowledge of the alcohol content of beverages was very poor. Knowledge of the term standard drink and what it represents in terms of absolute alcohol was also poor. Regarding the amounts of beverages poured, red and white wine, champagne and spirits are likely to be poured in amounts well in excess of a standard drink when people are drinking in their own homes. The results of this study have implications for the efficacy of educational campaigns designed to encourage safe and responsible drinking practices through the monitoring of personal intake. Before these can be effective, the terminology used must be familiar and well understood by the community towards which they are aimed. The results also discussed with respect to the design and administration of alcohol consumption questionnaires.     

Pharmacology of Alcohol Preference in Rodents

In alcoholism research, two fundamental and closely related questions are: "Why do people drink?" and "Why do some people drink too much?" Humans voluntarily drink alcoholic beverages or self-administer alcohol, more often than not, in a social setting. Environmental factors and how individuals react to them can, therefore, have powerful influences on drinking behavior. On the other hand, the neuropsychopharmacological actions of ethanol and how different individuals react to them can be important biological determinants. Ethanol's action is biphasic, i.e., it can be reinforcing (rewarding) in the low concentration range, but averse at high concentrations.¹ Perception by the individual of the reinforcing actions of ethanol might be expected to maintain alcohol-seeking behavior, whereas aversive effects would be expected to extinguish this behavior. Identification of the environmental and biological variables that promote and maintain alcohol-seeking or alcohol self-administration behavior is key to our understanding of the disorder alcoholism itself.     

Alcoholic beverages in acute porphyria.

Alcohol consumption habits and the clinical consequences of intake of alcoholic beverages were examined in 254 individuals with a diagnosis of acute intermittent porphyria or variegate porphyria, using a questionnaire. The study failed to demonstrate a connection between the amount of ethanol consumed, or the frequency of ingestion, and the development of symptoms of acute porphyria, other than in extreme consumption patterns. It was concluded that agents in alcoholic beverages other than ethanol play important roles in precipitating the porphyric symptoms. A majority of the individuals were able to identify alcoholic beverages that were less well tolerated and those that were better tolerated. The results suggest that polyphenolic compounds and 3 to 5 carbon chain hydrophobic alcohols may be responsible for the induction of clinical symptoms in acute porphyria by some alcoholic beverages. On the basis of these findings advice is proposed on alcohol counseling in inducible porphyria.     

A frequency and content analysis of alcohol advertising on Brazilian television.

OBJECTIVE: Two studies were conducted with the objective of analyzing the frequency and content of alcoholic beverage advertising on Brazilian television. METHOD: Study 1 presents a frequency analysis based on 84 hours of TV monitoring in which 1,640 commercials and 243 vignettes were recorded between 8:00 PM and 11:00 PM on the two main stations. Study 2 presents a content analysis of 139 alcoholic and 51 nonalcoholic beverage commercials aired in 1992-93, as evaluated by three trained judges. RESULTS: Study 1 showed the relative frequency of alcoholic beverage commercials (4.6%) to be higher than the frequency of other products such as cigarettes, nonalcoholic beverages and medicines, and lower than that of foods and various other items. Frequency of alcoholic "vignettes" (26.6%) was higher than the frequency of all the other product categories. Frequency data were closely matched by marketing investment data for the period. In Study 2, the most frequent themes and appeals present in alcohol commercials were relaxation, national symbolism, conformity, camaraderie and humor. Human models were present in most ads. Product-related themes such as information, quality or tradition were virtually absent, as were messages to drink moderately. However, 7.2% of the alcohol commercials displayed appeals promoting abusive drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The results seem to reflect the minimal regulation of alcohol advertising in Brazil, and a joint effort by health planners, educators, legislators, alcohol industries and advertising agencies is recommended as a necessary step to reduce alcoholic beverage problems in Brazilian society.     

Alcohol mixed with energy drink: Use may be a consequence of heavy drinking

AimsIn recent years, studies have indicated that consumers of alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) are more likely to drink heavily and experience more negative consequences than consumers who avoid these beverages. Although researchers have identified a number of plausible hypotheses that explain how alcohol-energy drink co-ingestion could cause greater alcohol consumption, there has been no postulation about reverse causal relations. This paper identifies several plausible hypotheses for the observed associations between AmED consumption and greater alcohol consumption, and provides initial evidence for one such hypothesis suggesting that heavy drinking may be a determinant of AmED use.MethodData collected from 511 bar patrons were used to examine the plausibility of one of the proposed hypotheses, i.e., AmED is an artifact of heavy drinking. Associations between the consumption of an assortment of alcoholic beverage types and total alcohol consumption were examined at the event-level, to assess whether AmED is uniquely related with greater alcohol consumption.ResultsIncreased alcohol consumption was associated with greater odds of consuming most alcoholic beverage types; this association was not unique to AmED.ConclusionsResults support the overlooked hypothesis that AmED use is an artifact of heavy drinking. Thus, AmED consumption may be a consequence or marker of heavier drinking. Much of the existing research on alcoholic beverage types is limited in its ability to implicate any specific type of drink, including AmED, as a cause of increased alcohol consumption and related harm. More rigorous study designs are needed to examine causal relationships.     

Airline Passengers' Alcohol Use and Its Safety Implications

Background. This investigation was designed to identify individual and contextual factors associated with airline passengers' alcohol use, and to explore potentially dangerous in-flight alcohol consumption.
Methods. Passengers waiting to board 24 domestic flights at an international airport in the South Atlantic United States were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire. Eighty percent of those approached agreed to participate. Our findings are based upon the responses of 1,548 adults.
Results. A majority (84%) of passengers indicated that they did not intend to consume alcoholic beverages on the plane they were waiting to board. Passengers who were more likely to report that they would drink were on longer flights, traveling with friends, and anticipating First or Business Class seating. Passengers who had already consumed alcohol that day and those who drank more often generally were also more likely to say that they intended to consume alcohol, as were people who thought that in-flight alcohol use was enjoyable, acceptable, and unlikely to make jet lag worse. Eighty-nine percent of the passengers who said they intended to drink reported that they would purchase one to two drinks.
Conclusions. Very few respondents reported intentions that would pose a risk to others. Future studies should validate alcohol consumption and sample passengers at multiple airports throughout the year.     

Using taxes to curb drinking: a report card on the Australian government's alcopops tax

Introduction and Aims. In 2008, the Australian government introduced an ‘alcopops tax’ on spirit‐based ready‐to‐drink (RTD) beverages to reduce alcohol consumption and particularly binge drinking by young people. Design and Methods. Data regarding sales of alcoholic beverages in Australia from 2004 to 2009 were used to examine the possible effects of the alcopops tax. In addition, population data were used to calculate and examine per capita consumption. Results. Various measures of consumption of wine‐based RTDs, spirits, cider, wine and beer remained fairly stable or increased annually from 2004 to 2009. Consumption of spirit‐based RTDs increased annually from 2004 to 2007, but then decreased in 2008 and 2009. Per capita alcohol consumption in terms of pure alcohol increased annually from 11.52 litres in 2004 to a peak of 11.79 litres in 2007, but then dropped to 11.55 litres and 11.41 litres in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Discussion and Conclusions. Consumption of spirit‐based RTDs dropped and consumption of other alcoholic beverages increased following the introduction of the tax. The increased consumption of other alcoholic beverages could be interpreted as indicating that RTD drinkers switched to purchasing spirits or wine‐based RTDs or cider. However, those increases could also be interpreted as a continuation of long‐term trends rather than a ‘substitution effect’. It is impossible to know how much of the changes were due to the tax, to the ‘global financial crisis’, to adaptive marketing by the alcohol industry, to the Government's national binge drinking strategy, to mass media coverage of these issues or to other factors.[Doran CM, Digiusto E. Using taxes to curb drinking: A report card on the Australian government's alcopops tax. Drug Alcohol Rev 2011;30:677–680]     

The Characteristics of Dependence in High-Dose Methamphetamine Abuse

A number of studies have investigated the use of alcoholic beverages by male juvenile delinquents (MacKay, 1961, 1963; Blacker et al., 1965), and a recent study (MacKay et al., 1967) compared alcohol use by delinquents of both sexes with alcohol use by nondelinquent high school students. These studies found that the number of students and delinquents who drink is similar, but the incidence of heavy drinking is higher among delinquents. A review of the literature revealed no investigations specifically examining the nature and depth of drinking behavior among delinquent girls.     

Perceived alcohol consumption reactions to increased opening hours of licenced premises in Western Australia

A Western Australian metropolitan sample of alcohol users stratified by age and socioeconomic status was asked to predict the effect increased opening hours of premises selling alcoholic beverages would have on their drinking behaviour. All groups believed that they would increase their drinking behaviour: young drinkers and male drinkers indicated that they would do so significantly more than others.     

Reactivity to alcohol cues and induced moods in alcoholics

It has been theorized that respondent conditioning processes in part underlie desire for alcohol and thus contribute to relapse after alcoholism treatment. One implication of this theory is that the relevant conditioned responses could be eliminated by respondent extinction, in which the alcoholic patient is exposed to alcohol-related stimuli while being prevented from consuming alcohol. However, exteroceptive cues such as the sight and smell of alcoholic beverages are not always sufficient to elicit desire for alcohol. In view of this, it has been suggested that interoceptive cues, such as mood states, may also play a role in eliciting desire for alcohol. To test this, eight alcoholic subjects were induced to experience negative or neutral moods on four separate days, and then exposed to the sight and smell of their favorite alcoholic drink, and to a neutral stimulus (seltzer water), in a within-subjects design. Results from this work indicate that: (a) negative moods can be reliably induced in the laboratory as confirmed by subjects' reports; (b) exposure to alcohol cues had no effect on desire for alcohol while subjects were in a relaxed, neutral mood state; (c) the presence of negative mood states alone appeared to be sufficient to elicit desire for alcohol in some subjects, regardless of whether alcohol or water was presented. These data argue that negative mood states may cue desire for alcohol independent of other cues. The data also suggest that reactivity to alcohol cues may be substantially reduced by relaxation.     

Acute and chronic effects of dinner with alcoholic beverages on nitric oxide metabolites in healthy men

1. The present study investigated the acute and chronic effect of dinner with alcoholic beverages on serum nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, namely nitrate and nitrite (NOx), in 11 healthy, non-smoking middle-aged men. 2. In a randomized, diet-controlled, cross-over trial, subjects consumed dinner with four glasses of red wine, beer, spirits (Dutch gin) or sparkling mineral water (control) for 3 weeks. At the end of each 3 week period, serum NOx concentrations were measured just before and 1, 5 and 13 h after dinner. 3. Serum NOx concentrations were approximately 50% higher 1 and 5 h after dinner with any beverage compared with just before dinner (P = 0.0001). At 1 h after dinner, the serum NOx concentration was approximately 11% lower after dinner with alcoholic beverages compared with concentrations observed after dinner with water (P = 0.01). The fasted serum NOx concentration (13 h after dinner) was similar to the preprandial concentration and there were no differences in serum NOx concentrations between the alcoholic beverages. 4. Food intake acutely and transiently increased serum NOx concentrations, an effect that was slightly attenuated if combined with alcoholic beverages. Chronic moderate alcohol consumption had no effect on serum NOx concentration.     

Hypothermic effects of a homologous series of short-chain alcohols in rats

The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of the thermoregulatory system as an end point in predicting the toxicity of various short-chain alcohols. Male Fischer rats developed significant hypothermia following acute administration (ip) of methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, or 2-butanol. The hypothermic responses to the six alcohols all showed similar segmented responses characterized by a threshold dose below which no change in body temperature occurred, and a suprathreshold regression with increasing dose causing greater hypothermia. Relative potency of the alcohols was assessed using both the threshold dose to cause hypothermia and the dose that would cause body temperature to decrease by 1 degree C. Both measures gave the progression of toxicity from least to most potent of methanol less than ethanol less than 2-propanol less than 1-propanol less than 2-butanol less than 1-butanol. The effective dose of each alcohol was compared to its membrane/buffer partition coefficient (Pm/b), and there was a high inverse correlation between the hypothermic dose of an alcohol and its lipid solubility. That the potency of an alcohol was strongly correlated with its Pm/b suggests that the membrane disordering theory of narcosis may also be used to explain the hypothermic action of alcohols.     

Personality characteristics ascribed to young women who drink alcohol

This study employs an implicit personality rating methodology from marketing research (the "shopping list" method) to investigate young adults' perceptions of young women who drink alcoholic beverages. Whereas there were some differences in perceptions of young women drinkers across the alcohol brands, the greatest differential in the personality ratings was caused by the mere presence or absence of alcohol. Young women who drink alcohol were described as being more "interesting" and "self-assured" than young women who do not drink. These positive traits were reliably ascribed to young women drinkers by both young adult men and young adult women and more strongly by those who themselves drink. Although it is possible that young women drinkers really are differentially interesting and self-assured, a more likely contributor to these perceptions is advertising aimed at the female drinker. [Jones SC, Rossiter JR. Personality characteristics ascribed to young women who drink alcohol. Drug Alcohol Rev 2003;22:117 - 123]     

Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's psychosis: to fortify or not to fortify?

The conventional wisdom suggests that Korsakoff's psychosis, an amnesic disorder associated with prolonged alcohol consumption, is the chronic outcome of a thiamin deficiency first exhibited as Wernicke's encephalopathy. The present paper describes the debate in Australia over whether flour and alcoholic beverages should be fortified with thiamin, in an attempt to prevent Wernicke's encephalopathy and thus Korsakoff's psychosis. We conclude that the scientific evidence linking Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's psychosis is tenuous. Certainly, it is not sufficient to support what would amount to mass medication.     

Patterns of alcohol consumption and Helicobacter pylori infection: results of a population-based study from Germany among 6545 adults

BACKGROUND: Moderate alcohol consumption has been suggested to facilitate elimination of Helicobacter pylori infection. AIM: To investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and infection with H. pylori, with particular consideration of the role of age, different alcoholic beverages and specific drinking habits. METHODS: These issues were addressed in the German National Health Survey, conducted in a representative population sample between October 1997 and March 1999. Overall, 6545 subjects provided data on frequency and average amount of different alcoholic beverages consumed. H. pylori infection status was measured by serum immunoglobulin G antibodies. RESULTS: Seroprevalence of the infection was highest among subjects who reported drinking no alcohol (49.3%) and lowest among subjects consuming 25-50 g alcohol/day (35.2%, adjusted odds ratio = 0.60, 95% confidence interval: 0.48-0.75). This inverse association was consistently seen for different alcoholic beverages and in all age groups and it was particularly pronounced among women and among regular but moderate drinkers. There was also an inverse dose-response relationship between the frequency of alcohol consumption and H. pylori infection. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis supports suggestions that regular but moderate consumption of alcohol from various sources may facilitate elimination of H. pylori infection.