Candidemia in a pediatric intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the incidence, epidemiology, and clinical characteristics of candidemia in a pediatric intensive care unit. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care teaching and referral hospital in north India. SUBJECTS: All patients with candidemia from March 1993 to December 1996. INTERVENTIONS: Patient-related data were analyzed to study candidemia in relation to reason for fungal culture, underlying medical conditions, predisposing factors, Candida isolates, antimicrobial and antifungal treatment, and deaths. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Sixty-four patients with candidemia were identified. The Candida species isolated were Candida tropicalis (48.4%), C. albicans (29.7%), C. guillermondii (14.1%), C. krusei (6.3%), and C. glabrata (1.6%). Thirty-three patients were detected by a high-risk surveillance blood culture, whereas 31 patients were detected while undergoing septic workup. Sixteen (25%) patients were asymptomatic; they recovered without any antifungal therapy and without any sequelae. Of 48 symptomatic patients, 11 died before institution of antifungal therapy; 37 received oral itraconazole (10 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)). Seven (19%) of these 37 patients died. Those who recovered had sterile culture on average by day 14 (range, 4-30) and received the antifungal therapy on average for 24 days (range, 9-42 days). Overall mortality rate was 28.1%, and bivariate analysis showed significant association with Pediatric Risk of Mortality score (p =.0001), presence of symptoms (p =.003), isolation of nonalbicans Candida in general (p =.04) and C. tropicalis specifically (p =.001), and failure to give presumptive antifungal therapy (p =.055). On multivariate analysis, Pediatric Risk of Mortality score and isolation of C. tropicalis were the only significant predictors of mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Nonalbicans Candida accounted for 70% of candidemia in a pediatric intensive care unit. High-risk surveillance blood cultures aided diagnosis in about half the patients. Severity of illness and isolation of C. tropicalis were significant predictors of mortality.     

Computer-assisted data analysis in a pediatric intensive care unit

Computer assisted real time data analysis introduces a reasonable method of judgment into patient monitoring systems. From fast changing vital parameters discrete heart and respiration rate samples are immediately evaluated and presented as graphs near the bedside. Thus, statistical routines can increase the better understanding of instable clinical conditions and lend support to the decision making process. The early detection of a pathological trend in a patient whose ability to compensate is still present provides necessary time for diagnostic or preventive countermeasures in case of emergency.     

Infections in a pediatric intensive care unit

All infections occurring in a busy pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) from 1982 to 1984 were characterized by site, bacteriology, acquisition status, and outcome. Standard Centers for Disease Control criteria were employed. Nine hundred sixty-five patients were admitted to the PICU. Mortality was 3.4%. Two hundred twenty-one infections occurred in 180 patients. Infection rates were 23% and 6% for total and PICU-acquired infections, respectively. Infections of the central nervous system (n = 56), lower respiratory tract (n = 53), and genitourinary tract (n = 46) made up 70% of all infections. Haemophilus influenzae (n = 39) was the most commonly isolated pathogen. Staphylococcus aureus (20%) and Klebsiella-Enterobacter-Serratia (18.3%) were most commonly noted in PICU-acquired infections. Twenty infected patients (11.1%) died in the PICU. Lower respiratory tract infections (20.5%) were associated with the highest mortality. Both PICU-acquired and community-acquired infections were associated with similar mortalities. Infected patients in a PICU have a mortality approximately 300% higher than that seen in the overall PICU population. The data presented document the importance of infection and provide information against which similar units can gauge their infection status for quality-assurance purposes.     

Establishing a new pediatric intensive care unit

Summary Pediatric intensive care is a collaborative practice of dedicated personnel, advanced technology and a diverse group of support services. Unit design must focus on current patient needs while envisioning the technological and clinical needs of the future. With insight and a cooperative effort, your design team can effectively transform ideas into a unit committed to the care of critically ill children.     

Impact of inborn errors of metabolism on admission and mortality in a pediatric intensive care unit

The authors conducted a retrospective analysis of the patients admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) during a five-year period, with specific focus on those with a suspected or confirmed diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism (IEM), in order to ascertain the resources required to care for these patients. Medical records were reviewed for all admissions between January 1998 and December 2002 in a single metabolic referral center, and a subset of patients were identified with suspected IEM at admission or diagnosed IEM at hospital discharge. These patient charts were then further reviewed and the following information was extracted: IEM diagnosis, demographic data, biochemical characteristics at admission, need for mechanical ventilation, use of extracorporeal removal therapy, and outcome at PICU discharge. The study population comprised 70 patients (2.2% of all admissions during the study period) and included 33 neonates and 37 children aged >28 days. IEM diagnosis was known at the time of admission to the PICU in 9/33 of the neonates and 23/37 of the older children. Forty-three of the patients required invasive mechanical ventilation, while continuous extracorporeal removal therapy was used in 27 children. The median length of PICU stay was 3 days (range, 1 to 13 days) and 20 patients (28.6%) died. In conclusion, these observations show that inherited metabolic disease may be as frequent a primary diagnosis as septic shock in some PICUs. In neonates, these diseases are not usually diagnosed prior to PICU admission. Patients with IEM admitted to a PICU require aggressive support (including mechanical ventilation and extracorporeal removal therapies), and consume significant resources for relatively short PICU stays. These patients constitute a significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for pediatric intensivists.     

Risk factors for mortality resulting from bloodstream infections in a pediatric intensive care unit

BACKGROUND: Bloodstream infections (BSIs) are prevalent in the critical care setting and have high attributable morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that significantly contribute to immediate as well as eventual mortality in patients with bloodstream infections at a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). METHODS: Retrospective review of 2097 clinical records from admissions to our PICU in a 2-year period. Two separate case-control models were used. In the first model, eventual mortality (EM CASES) reflected those patients with eventual mortality, and EM CONTROLS were those who survived. In the second, infection-related mortality (IRM) cases were those with infection-related mortality, defined as death within 7 days of BSI, and IRM CONTROLS were survivors past 7 days. Logistic regression was used to adjust for differences for 3 categories: patient characteristics, microbiology and treatment variables. RESULTS: We identified 74 separate episodes of bacteremia. Having an underlying malignancy or immunodeficiency was the only independently significant predictor of eventual mortality for BSI isolated within the PICU. Patients with infection-related mortality more likely had Gram-negative bacteremia and/or fungemia, were older and had inadequate initial empiric antibiotic treatment at the time BSI was diagnosed. CONCLUSIONS: Targeted and aggressive early interventions should guide the empiric treatment of BSIs, whereas prolonged broad spectrum treatment should be minimized to avoid the emergence of resistant pathogen organisms.     

Handwashing technique in a pediatric intensive care unit

A one-year prospective study of 454 patients in a pediatric intensive care unit was performed to determine whether the rate of breaks in handwashing technique was different between medical professionals and to determine whether these rates were altered by the use of the overgown. A handwashing break in technique was defined as not washing your hands after direct contact with either patients or support equipment before contact with another patient or departure from the unit. Ninety-four two-hour sessions were monitored by a research nurse during four cross-over periods of gown and no-gown use. Physicians did not wash their hands in 834 (79%) of 1056 contacts, nurses in 1073 (63%) of 1714 cases, occupational therapists in 21 (62%) of 34 cases, respiratory therapists in 269 (78%) of 346 cases, and radiology technicians in 59 (78%) of 76 cases. Nurses used significantly better technique when compared with physicians, respiratory therapists, and radiology technicians. Gown usage overall did not affect these breaks in handwashing technique rates. Physicians did not wash their hands 75% of the time when gowns were not used and 82% of the time when gowns were used. Handwashing rates were unaffected by gown use in all other professionals. Handwashing remains an important but neglected method of interrupting the transmission of hospital pathogens.     

Nosocomial pneumonia in a pediatric intensive care unit

BACKGROUND: Nosocomial pneumonia (NP) is the second most common hospital acquired infection. Understanding the pattern of occurrence, risk factors and etiological agents of NP in a PICU, is essential for developing effective infection control measures. This prospective observational study was conducted in a PICU of a tertiary care teaching hospital, to determine the incidence, etiology and risk factors for NP. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients admitted to the PICU, over a period of 1 year who had endotracheal (ET) intubation, were enrolled consecutively into the study. Demographic details were recorded at the time of inclusion. Diagnosis of NP was based on CDC criteria (1988).Semiquantiative assay of endotracheal aspirate (ETA) with a colony count of > 10(5) cfu/mL was taken as evidence of infection. Colonisation was defined as isolation of organism with <10(5) cfu/mL. Age, nutritional status, number and duration of intubations, duration of mechanical ventilation, sedation, nasogastric feeding were the risk factors studied for development of NP. Intubation attempts of more than one were defined as reintubation. Risk factors found significant on univariate analysis, were subjected to multiple regression analysis to determine the most important predictors of NP. RESULTS: The study group comprised of 72 children with a median age of 3.7 years and boys: girls ratio of 1.9:1.Twenty two of 72 (30.5%) developed NP; the predominant isolates from ETA were Acinetobacter anitratus(12), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5), Klebsiella sp(3) and Staphylococcus aureus and E.coli(1) each. Additionally 18(39%) had evidence of ET colonization, with Acinetobacter sp being the commonest 9(50%). Re-intubation, prolonged duration of intubation and mechanical ventilation were the significant risk factors on univariate analysis for development of NP.On multiple regression analysis, reintubation was the only independent risk factor for NP(OR 0.72, 95%CI 0.55-0.94).Overall mortality was 21%(15/72);7(47%)of these deaths were secondary to NP. CONCLUSIONS: NP developed in nearly one third of the intubated patients; Gram negative organisms were the predominant etiological agents and associated with high mortality. Re-intubation, prolonged duration of intubation and mechanical ventilation were the significant risk factors on univariate analysis for development of NP. On multiple regression analysis, reintubation was the only independent risk factor for NP.     

Accidental extubation in a pediatric intensive care unit

It is an on-going practice in the pediatric ICUs to obtain and to maintain a working artificial airway. Nevertheless this procedure bears not infrequent risks of accidental extubation (AE) which ranges in several services from 0.9 to 3.3 for each 100 days of intubation. The risk factors that are involved in AE are related to: sedation level, age-group, intubation path, and others. The purpose of the authors in this article was to observe the incidence of AE in their service and to compare the relative risk in the rate of AE among orotracheal and nasotracheal intubation population. A prospective study was taken during six months, in which every patients with artificial airway admitted at the PICU of the Santo Antonio Hospital in Porto Alegre (Brazil) was included except those with tracheostomy. The total number of cases were 673 patients-day with artificial airway, with an average of 3.7 patients with tracheal tube per day. In the period there were 18 AE, with a rate of 2.7 AE/ 100 days. The incidence rate of AE in the orotracheal group was 3.1% and 1.6% in the nasotracheal group with no statistically significant difference (p=0.6). The authors concluded that the pathway of intubation in their study does not carry any additional risk in the incidence of accidental extubation.     

数字视频脑电图在儿科重症监护室的应用

儿科重症监护室(NICU、PICU)的患儿常存在各种原因导致脑损伤,数字视频脑电图检查可为病因诊断、病情变化监测、评估、预后等提供帮助,现将数字视频脑电图在 NICU 和 PICU 中常见疾病中的应用进行综述。     

危重病患儿急性颅内高压及脑水肿的病因和病死危险因素分析

目的　调查儿科重症监护病区 (PICU)危重病患儿发生急性颅内高压及脑水肿的原因、流行病学特点和病死危险因素。方法　总结 1999年 1月 - 2 0 0 3年 12月 ,我院PICU危重病患者中 ,急性颅内高压及脑水肿患儿的病因、预后与多器官功能不全综合征 (MODS)的关系。利用队列研究对患者病死危险因素进行分析。结果　 14 4 6例危重病患儿中 ,2 16例发生急性颅内高压及脑水肿 ,病死率2 9 2 %。 5年间病死率无明显变化 (χ2 =0 371,P =0 985 )。神经系统与非神经系统原发疾病病死率差异无统计学意义 (χ2 =0 5 4 6 ,P =0 4 6 0 )。神经系统感染、意外伤害和败血症是常见病因 ,分别占2 7 8%、2 2 4 %和 10 2 %。对 12个死亡因素进行统计学分析 ,显示合并器官衰竭数目、年龄小、入科当日危重评分值、有基础疾病、呼吸衰竭和瞳孔大小改变与病死率显著相关 (P <0 0 5或P <0 0 0 1)。结论　 1999年以来 ,颅内高压及脑水肿患儿的病死率依然很高。神经系统感染、意外伤害和败血症是主要发病危险因素 ;患病年龄小于 1岁、低危重评分及合并MODS是病死主要危险因素。     

The incidence of arrhythmias in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit

A pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) manages critically ill children and adults with congenital or acquired heart disease. These patients are at increased risk for arrhythmias. The purpose of this study was to prospectively evaluate the incidence of arrhythmias in a pediatric CICU patient population. All patients admitted to the CICU at the Cardiac Center at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia between December 1, 1997, and November 30, 1998, were evaluated prospectively from CICU admission to hospital discharge via full disclosure telemetry reviewed every 24 hours. Arrhythmias reviewed included nonsustained and sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT), nonsustained and sustained supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), atrial flutter and fibrillation, junctional ectopic tachycardia, and complete heart block. We reviewed 789 admissions consisting of 629 patients (age range, 1 day–45.5 years; median, 8.1 months). Hospital stay ranged from 1 to 155 days (total of 8116 patient days). Surgical interventions (n = 602) included 482 utilizing cardiopulmonary bypass. During the study period, there were 44 deaths [44/629 patients (7.0%)], none of which were directly attributable to a primary arrhythmia. The operative mortality was 5.1%. Overall, 29.0% of admissions had one or more arrhythmias the most common arrhythmia was nonsustained VT (18.0% of admissions), followed by nonsustained SVT (12.9% of admissions). Patients admitted to a pediatric CICU have a high incidence of arrhythmias, most likely associated with their underlying pathophysiology and to the breadth of medical and surgical interventions conducted.     

Candida colonization and candidemia in a pediatric intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate role of Candida colonization in development of candidemia and to identify risk factors associated with Candida colonization and candidemia in children treated for severe sepsis or septic shock in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for >5 days. DESIGN: Prospective observational. SETTING: PICU of a tertiary care teaching hospital. SUBJECTS: Of 186 children, aged 1 month to 14 yrs, consecutively admitted to PICU for severe sepsis or septic shock, 65 patients having a stay of >5 days. INTERVENTIONS: Clinical and demographic data at admission and variables likely to influence Candida colonization were recorded. Oropharyngeal, rectal, and skin (groin) swabs were taken on days 0, 2, 5, and 7 of admission. Blood for fungal culture (two samples 48 hrs apart) was obtained if a patient developed signs of sepsis. The yeast growth was identified by conventional methods. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated, and multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Colonization by Candida species occurred in 45 (69%) patients. Oropharyngeal (52%) and rectal (43%) colonization was more common than skin (34%) colonization. The colonizing species were C. tropicalis (34.2%), C. parapsilosis (28.8%), C. albicans (14.4%), and others. Use of central venous catheters was the only independent predictor of colonization on multivariate logistic regression (OR 4.1; 95% CI 1.01-17.1). Twenty (30.2%) patients developed candidemia; 18 (90%) of them were colonized, 15 (75%) with the same Candida species. Independent predictors of candidemia on multivariate stepwise logistic regression analysis were presence of colonization (OR 5.1; 95% CI 1.01-25.6, p = .048) and Pediatric Risk of Mortality score (OR 1.3; 95% CI 1.02-1.6, p = .034). CONCLUSIONS: Monitoring for colonization with Candida species in children undergoing treatment for severe sepsis or sepsis shock in PICU for >5 days may offer opportunity for early intervention for prevention of candidemia.     

Validation of pediatric index of mortality 2 (PIM2) in a single pediatric intensive care unit of Argentina.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric Index of Mortality 2 (PIM2) is an up-to-date mortality prediction model in the public domain that has not yet been widely validated. We aimed to evaluate this score in the population of patients admitted to our pediatric intensive care unit. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Multidisciplinary pediatric intensive care unit in a general university hospital in Buenos Aires, Argentina. PATIENTS: All consecutive patients admitted between January 1, 2004, and December 31, 2005. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: There were 1,574 patients included in the study. We observed 41 (2.6%) deaths, and PIM2 estimated 48.1 (3.06) deaths. Discrimination assessed by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.9 (95% confidence interval, 0.89-0.92). Calibration across five conventional mortality risk intervals assessed by the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test showed chi5 = 12.2 (p = .0348). The standardized mortality ratio for the whole population was 0.85 (95% confidence interval, 0.6-1.1). CONCLUSIONS: PIM2 showed an adequate discrimination between death and survival and a poor calibration assessed by the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test. The standardized mortality ratio and clinical analysis of the Hosmer-Lemeshow table make us consider that PIM2 reasonably predicted the outcome of our patients.     

Noninvasive monitoring in the pediatric intensive care unit.

The best ICU monitors are physicians and nurses, who integrate all of the physiologic parameters of patients with the known pathophysiology of the disease process. Over-reliance on raw electronic data, with their inherent errors, jeopardizes the safe and efficient care of patients. Data must be interpreted in the context of the history, repetitive physical examinations, response to therapy, and a background of experience. New modalities and the application of artificial intelligence may facilitate the interpretation of data, but the role of the bedside medical practitioner remains as the heart of pediatric critical care.     

Demographic profile and outcome analysis of a tertiary level pediatric intensive care unit

Objective : To study the profile and outcome of children admitted to a tertiary level pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) in India.Methods : Prospective study of patient demographics, PRISM III scores, diagnoses, treatment, morbidity and mortality of all PICU admissions.Results : 948 children were admitted to the PICU. Mean age was 41.48 months. Male to female ratio was 2.95:1. Mean PRISM III score on admission was 18.50. Diagnoses included respiratory (19.7%), cardiac (9.7%), neurological (17.9%), infectious (12.5%), trauma (11.7%), other surgical (8.8%).196 children (20.68%) required mechanical ventilation. Average duration of ventilation was 6.39 days. 27 children (30.7 children /1000 admissions) had acute respiratory distress syndrome. Gross mortality was 6.7% (59 patients). PRISMIII adjusted mortality was directly proportional to PRISMIII scores. 49.5% of nonsurvivors had multiorgan failure. Average length of PICU stay was 4.52 +/−2.6 days. Complications commonly encountered Were atelectasis (6.37%), accidental extubation (2%), and pneumothorax (0.9%). Incidence of nosocomial infections was 16.86%.Conclusion : Our data appears to be similar with regards to PRISMIII scores and adjusted mortality, length of the PICU stay, and duration of ventilation, to previously published western data. Multiorgan failure remains a major cause of death. As expected, Dengue and malaria were common. Incidence of nosocomial infections was somewhat high. Interestingly, more boys got admitted to the PICU as compared to girls. Clearly more studies are required to assess the overall outcomes of critically ill children in India