Nicolas Houel and Michel Dusseau, apothecaries of the XVIth century in Paris

These two apothecaries of the XVIth century of Pharmacy in Paris were outstanding personalities. Nicolas Houel founded a charity in the south of Paris at Saint-Marcel suburb: The House of Christian Charity. It was a philanthropic organization composed of a chapel, an orphanage, a hospital, an apothecary's shop and a medicinal plants garden called Le Jardin des apothicaires. This institution is at the origin of the future Paris Pharmacy College (1777) and of the Paris School of Pharmacy (1803). This apothecary was also an artist, a poet, the author of artistic and scientific works. He wrote three pharmaceutical books between 1571 and 1573. The first one Pharmaceutices libri duo is about laxative and purgative medicines in accordance with Mésué's concepts, the second is a Plague Treatise and the third a Theriac and Mithridat Treatise. Michel Dusseau is the author of the first pharmaceutical book written in French prose. It was published in Lyon in 1561: l'Enchirid ou Manipul des miropoles. The life of Michel Dusseau had remained quite unknown but we recently managed to identify four generations of Dusseaus: Christofle, the ancestor, who lived in the XVth century and was not an apothecary, Michel a juror of the Paris apothecaries community and the author of the Enchirid, Pierre, Michel's son, also an apothecary, and lastly, Pierre's children who were the 4th generation. L'Enchirid is a "Manual for myrrh sellers ", a galenic pharmacy book divided into three parts. The first part shows how to prepare medicines, the second deals with pharmaceutical operations, the third is dedicated to the preparations of galenic forms. This book was well appreciated by French apothecaries in the XVIth-XVIIth centuries but sank into oblivion because of obsolescence.     

The beginning of the teaching of chemistry in Lorraine: the Royal College of Medicine and the Faculty of Medicine of Nancy (1752 and 1776)

The faculty of medicine of the university created in Pont-à-Mousson in the second part of the XVIth century, transferred to Nancy in 1768, was not in possession of a chair of chemistry, but, in the middle of the XVIIIth century, it was interested by the development of this science. In Nancy, the Royal College of medicine, created by King Stanislas in 1752, disposed of a professor of chemistry since 1756, and also of a demonstrator who was one of the apothecaries of the town. In Metz, a course of this science occurred between 1756 and 1769 with the apothecary Thyrion. In 1776, the physician Henry Michel du Tennetar and the apothecary Pierre-Fran?ois Nicolas opened a private course of chemistry, immediately transformed into a chair of the faculty of medicine. This chair will be maintained until Révolution. The personality and work of Michel du Tennetar and Nicolas, the circumstances and conditions of the creation of the chair, the inheritance of Michel, and the appointment of the demonstrator, also an apothecary, are successively described.     

A short letter revealing the concerns of XVIIIth century apothecaries

A letter from Demoret, Paris apothecary, to Le Chandelier, Rouen apothecary, evoked the defense of the interests of the profession, the practice of the profession and the family life of apothecaries of the XVIIIth Century. The important question of the examinations of hospital apothecaries, called "gagnants-ma?trises", and the question of soft drinks makers sailing syrups were treated. The trouble caused by the public display of theriaca, the illness of an assistant or the inspection by guards and physicians were described. Drug supply by colleagues from another town was pointed out. Finally the family life showed the hardness of the period and the way the sons of an apothecary were educated. The interest of this text is that it gives the opinion of an individual concerning general matters.     

Genealogical study of the Pijart dynasty, goldsmiths or apothecaries in Paris in the 16th and 17th centuries

The Pijart dynasty, established in Paris during the 16th and 17th centuries, included apothecaries and goldsmiths who had a common ancestor, Michel Pijart, warden of the goldsmith's guild (garde de l'orfèvrerie) in 1507. He was married to Jehanne Daumont and died 23rd July 1524. This couple had four sons, all goldsmiths, Pierre, Michel, Jehan and Nicolas. Pierre married twice. His first wife, Philippe Dusseau, was the sister of a famous apothecary. Only their eldest son, Fran?ois, chose the profession of apothecary; the other three, Jacques, Jehan and Philibert, all followed their father's profession. By his second marriage to Marie de Mézières, Pierre had two sons, Claude the elder and Claude the younger, who both became goldsmiths. Thus, the goldsmith's trade became the favoured profession of the Pijart family. Professional endogamy prevailed in this dynasty, after the fashion of merchants belonging to the six most prestigious guilds (Six-Corps de métiers). Goldsmiths and apothecaries retained strong family ties, demonstrated by family reunions (baptisms, betrothals, etc.). It is undisputable that the renown of this dynasty is based on the fame of its goldsmiths. However, through marriage, the Pijart's developed links with other families of apothecaries, of which the most outstanding were the Boulduc's.     

The "apothecaries of pest" in Nancy during the XVII(th) and XVIII(th) centuries

In order to fight pest and to help sick and poor people, the city of Nancy determined at the beginning of the XVII(th) century the formation of a medical organization with physicians, surgeons and apothecaries. They are called as < apothecaries of pest >, as in other towns, or < apothecaries of the mansion-house >. The first of them was Graillot, or Grillot, who worked from 1630 forth, as a surgeon. Then, one of our fellows exercised this activity until the end of the XVIII(th) century, although such epidemies had disappeared. The < inheritance > came in a manner in 1764, when the apothecaries agreed to participate in the < medicine of poors > worked up by the Royal College of medicine created in 1752.     

Donald E. Francke Medal lecture. The transition from apothecary to pharmacist in British hospitals.

The transition from hospital apothecaries to contemporary hospital pharmacists in Great Britain is reviewed, beginning with the monk-apothecaries associated with the monastic infirmaries as early as the 12th century. Briefly reviewed is the use of the title Apothecary, from about the mid-1500s to about the mid-1800s, at three Royal Hospitals--St. Thomas's Hospital, St. Bartholomew's Hospital and the Bethlehem Hospital. The responsibilities, pharmaceutical and otherwise, of persons who held this title over the years are discussed. Pharmaceutical duties were eventually entrusted to the dispenser (or, at St. Thomas's, the pharmaceutist) and then to the pharmacist. The history of hospital apothecaries is also traced at the voluntary hospitals, University College Hospital, and hospitals in Scotland, Wales and the British provinces. British hospital apothecaries changed from a pharmaceutical orientation to a medical orientation, but they retained control of hospital pharmacies for about 50 years after this change was sanctioned legally.     

Conflict of interest or ideological divide: the need for ongoing collaboration between physicians and industry

Continued collaboration between the health profession and industry is essential for future innovation and for fighting disease and illness well into the 21st century. Evidence that suggests conflicts of interest have a negative effect on patient care or the total cost of health care is lacking. Many arguments put forth to address this issue include strictly limiting or severing ties with industry. Research takes place in university, government, and pharmaceutical laboratories, but only industry translates research into drug therapy. While both parties have a shared goal of optimizing health outcomes, industry critics conveniently invoke 'conflict of interest' to express their opinion about the need to more strictly regulate physician/industry interactions. Retreat from industry by academic institutions and working in isolation are simply not strategic options and other points of view must be expressed to help avoid the 'triumph of emotion over fact'.     

Sainte-Catherine hospital and chapel

During seven centuries charitable institutions set up in Sainte-Catherine hospital and chapel rue Saint-Denis in Paris. From the beginning of the 15th century until the mid-16th century the apothecaries and grocers' brotherhood celebrated mass in the chapel. At the French Revolution Valentin Hauy's young blind organization was established at this place. Finally Sainte-Catherine hospital was destroyed in the last half of the century.     

Conflict of interest or ideological divide: the need for ongoing collaboration between physicians and industry

ABSTRACT

Continued collaboration between the health profession and industry is essential for future innovation and for fighting disease and illness well into the 21st century. Evidence that suggests conflicts of interest have a negative effect on patient care or the total cost of health care is lacking. Many arguments put forth to address this issue include strictly limiting or severing ties with industry. Research takes place in university, government, and pharmaceutical laboratories, but only industry translates research into drug therapy. While both parties have a shared goal of optimizing health outcomes, industry critics conveniently invoke ‘conflict of interest’ to express their opinion about the need to more strictly regulate physician/ industry interactions. Retreat from industry by academic institutions and working in isolation are simply not strategic options and other points of view must be expressed to help avoid the ‘triumph of emotion over fact’.     

Verification for reform of the Japanese pharmaceutical education by some organizations in 60 years, after World War II

After World War II, the Japanese pharmaceutical education system was drastically changed on the advice of the general headquarters of the American occupational army. Two universities and 18 colleges were reformed in to new universities. Graduates from pharmaceutical universities were eligible to take the national pharmacist's license examination, which was conducted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. New pharmaceutical departments within a university could be founded provided that they conformed to stringent standards set by the Ministry of Education, covering such aspects as location, building facilities, equipment, teaching administration, number of teachers and qualifications, and curriculum. From 1949 to 1983, seven national, three public and 31 private universities with pharmaceutical departments were established. Three departments, pharmacy, manufacturing pharmacy, and biological pharmacy, are present in several pharmaceutical universities. The number of students attending university pharmaceutical departments increased from 4,000 in 1940 to 8,000 in 1983. In 1973, the Japan Pharmaceutical Association proposed a six-year pharmaceutical education system. However, the Council of Deans of in the faculty of pharmaceutical sciences at the national university and the Ministry of Education were opposed. The plans to reform pharmaceutical education were thrown into confusion from 1983 to 1990. The Six Members Council for pharmaceutical education (Rokushakon), the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Welfare, the Japan Pharmaceutical Association, the Japan Hospital Pharmaceutical Association, the Council of Deans in the faculty of pharmaceutical sciences at the national university, and the Association of Private Pharmaceutical Universities was reformed in 1999, and then the council carried out debate into 2004. The Six Members Council arrived at an agreement that requires six years of pharmaceutical educations, including six months of the practical pharmacy expensece in a hospital pharmacy or health insurance pharmacy, in 2003. Finally in 2004, the laws for school education and the laws for becoming a pharmacist were amended in the House of Representatives and the House of Councilors. The authors expess their opinions about pharmaceutical education, pharmacists, and the pharmaceutical industry in the second decade of the 21st century.     

中英医院药学技术人员职业发展及教育模式探讨

目的 以英国药学技术人员的职业发展和教育模式为借鉴，以期为中国医院药学事业的发展提供实践依据。方法 介绍英国国家药学教育与药学技术人员发展框架及医院药师的受教育和职业发展路径，找出两国在药师培养、工作模式的不同和差距，提出促进中国临床药学事业发展、药学教育改革和临床药师培养的建议。结果与结论 英国的药学教育以培养面向临床及患者工作的药师为目的，学制4年，药学硕士学位，教学内容偏重临床实践。中国的药学教育起步较晚，药学人才培养模式与课程设置未突出该课程"交叉、实践性强"的特点；英国的药学教育模式、药学人才培养体系及医疗体制对其医院药学服务发展具有重要的作用，对中国药学人才培养模式与课程设置改革有借鉴意义。     

Harvey A. K. Whitney Lecture. Of perceived value.

Current issues in pharmacy are discussed and recommendations are made to help pharmacy demonstrate its value in health care. There is a need for pharmacy to actively demonstrate and communicate its value in health care. Educational requirements should reflect the values of the profession. In the debate over the entry-level Pharm.D. degree, the profession must not lose sight of the principal goal of elevating the basic competencies of all pharmacists. Graduate-level education will continue to be valuable, but the degrees and programs should be modified to meet current and future needs. Residency training will become increasingly essential. A well-defined corps of pharmacy technicians is needed. The profession should strive to meet the needs of society rather than confining itself to traditional practice definitions. This will involve increased interaction with patients. Also, pharmacy directors must become more creative in allocating existing resources and building arguments for expansion. When patients recognize the value of pharmacy services, they will seek out and demand those services. Pharmacists must get involved in deliberations regarding health-care reform. They have a responsibility to promote preventive medicine and healthy life-styles. They should actively promote the rational use of all medications. Although tremendous progress has been made in advancing the concept of pharmaceutical care, the profession still has work to do in communicating its value to the public.     

Development of pharmaceutical care in The Netherlands: pharmacy's contemporary focus on the patient.

OBJECTIVE: To describe how developments in the pharmacy profession in The Netherlands converged into the current movement toward pharmaceutical care. SETTING: Dutch community pharmacy. DESCRIPTION: Literature was reviewed for key elements of pharmacists' professional development over the last 40 years--the pharmacist-physician relationship, the pharmacist-patient relationship, the education of the pharmacist, provision of information to patients, medication surveillance, clinical pharmacy, and social pharmacy. Consideration was given to how, when and if these elements interacted and contributed to the movement toward pharmaceutical care. RESULTS: During the early years of the 20th century the professional role of the pharmacist, based on preparing medications, declined because of the increased industrial production of drugs. In The Netherlands, a number of developments, starting around 1995, led to a "reprofessionalization" movement in pharmacy, characterized by pharmacists' increased awareness of social and ethical responsibilities with respect to drugs and patients. These developments included an improved relationship between pharmacists and physicians, the implementation of clinical pharmacy and medical surveillance in daily community pharmacy practice in the 1970s and 1980s, and the increased awareness of the rights of patients to quality drug information and counseling in the 1980s and 1990s. By the end of 1980 these trends had coalesced into a professional movement supporting the need for a pharmaceutical care model of practice. CONCLUSION: Dutch pharmacy is gradually implementing pharmaceutical care in daily community practice. However, a proactive attitude, not only from the "front runners," but from all pharmacists, is desirable if pharmaceutical care is to be incorporated into routine community practice.     

某高校医院创新社区药学服务的探索

目的:探讨如何利用高校的资源优势创新高校社区药学服务。方法:介绍某高校医院开展药学服务的实践与体会,论述如何利用高校优势系统化、规范化地在社区开展药学服务。结果与结论:我校社区服务中心通过采取"1+9"的家庭医生团队管理模式,建立电子动态健康档案和慢性病管理用药档案,对患者进行用药跟踪和随访,针对高校社区不同人群的特点,利用学校各种宣传媒体进行合理用药宣传和健康教育,以互动的形式开展形式多样的社区卫生服务活动。同时,通过建立药学服务评价系统来改进药学服务,创新了社区药学服务,提高了社区居民知晓率和满意度,提高了居民的生活质量。     

Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care

Pharmacy's opportunity to mature as a profession by accepting its social responsibility to reduce preventable drug-related morbidity and mortality is explored. Pharmacy has shed the apothecary role but has not yet been restored to its erst-while importance in medical care. It is not enough to dispense the correct drug or to provide sophisticated pharmaceutical services; nor will it be sufficient to devise new technical functions. Pharmacists and their institutions must stop looking inward and start redirecting their energies to the greater social good. Some 12,000 deaths and 15,000 hospitalizations due to adverse drug reactions (ADRs) were reported to the FDA in 1987, and many went unreported. Drug-related morbidity and mortality are often preventable, and pharmaceutical services can reduce the number of ADRs, the length of hospital stays, and the cost of care. Pharmacists must abandon factionalism and adopt patient-centered pharmaceutical care as their philosophy of practice. Changing the focus of practice from products and biological systems to ensuring the best drug therapy and patient safety will raise pharmacy's level of responsibility and require philosophical, organizational, and functional changes. It will be necessary to set new practice standards, establish cooperative relationships with other health-care professions, and determine strategies for marketing pharmaceutical care. Pharmacy's reprofessionalization will be completed only when all pharmacists accept their social mandate to ensure the safe and effective drug therapy of the individual patient.     

The Future of the Pharmaceutical Sciences and Graduate Education: Recommendations from the AACP Graduate Education Special Interest Group

Despite pharma''s recent sea change in approach to drug discovery and development, U.S. pharmaceutical sciences graduate programs are currently maintaining traditional methods for master''s and doctoral student education. The literature on graduate education in the biomedical sciences has long been advocating educating students to hone soft skills like communication and teamwork, in addition to maintaining excellent basic skills in research. However, recommendations to date have not taken into account the future trends in the pharmaceutical industry. The AACP Graduate Education Special Interest Group has completed a literature survey of the trends in the pharmaceutical industry and graduate education in order to determine whether our graduate programs are strategically positioned to prepare our graduates for successful careers in the next few decades. We recommend that our pharmaceutical sciences graduate programs take a proactive leadership role in meeting the needs of our future graduates and employers. Our graduate programs should bring to education the innovation and collaboration that our industry also requires to be successful and relevant in this century.     

Addressing the global need for public health clinical pharmacists through student pharmacist education: a focus on developing nations

It is time for pharmacists to begin advancing their roles in public health and play a more integral part in public health initiatives. Within developed nations, the profession has demonstrated its value in advancing preventive care; however, the same cannot be said for pharmacists worldwide. Emphasis on training public health pharmacists should also be on developing nations, where the need for preventive care is highly unmet. To ensure all graduating pharmacists are prepared to engage in public health activities, education in this field must be provided during their main years of pharmacy school. In conclusion, public health education should be incorporated into pharmacy curriculae within developing nations so all pharmacy graduates are prepared to engage in public health activities.