Infection control for SARS in a tertiary paediatric centre in Hong Kong

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an emerging infectious disease. After the appearance of an index patient in Hong Kong in February 2003, SARS outbreaks occurred rapidly in hospitals and spread to the community. The aim of this retrospective study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a triage policy and risk-stratified infection control measures in preventing nosocomial SARS infection among paediatric healthcare workers (HCWs) at the Prince of Wales Hospital, a general hospital to which children with SARS are referred in Hong Kong. The acute paediatric wards were stratified into three areas: (1) ultra high-risk area, (2) high-risk area and (3) moderate-risk area according to different risk levels of nosocomial SARS transmission. The implementation of different levels of infection control precautions was guided by this risk stratification strategy. Between 13 March and 23 June, 38 patients with probable and suspected SARS, 90 patients with non-SARS pneumonia, and 510 patients without pneumonia were admitted into our unit. All probable SARS cases were isolated in negative-pressure rooms. Twenty-six HCWs worked in the ultra high-risk area caring for SARS patients and 88 HCWs managed non-SARS patients in other ward areas. None of the HCWs developed clinical features suggestive of SARS. In addition, there was no nosocomial spread of SARS-associated coronavirus to other patients or visitors during this period. In conclusion, stringent infection control precautions, appropriate triage and prompt isolation of potential SARS patients may have contributed to a lack of nosocomial spread and HCW acquisition of SARS in our unit.     

用逆转录聚合酶链反应方法检测SARS冠状病毒

目的 应用双位点逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)和改良巢式实时RT-PCR方法检测临床标本中SAILS冠状病毒(SAILS-CoV)核酸,以提高检测的可靠性和灵敏度。方法 对2003年杭州市3例严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)临床确诊患者、4例疑似和27名医学观察者的咽拭子标本用巢式实时RT-PCR检测SAILS-CoV核酸,对阳性扩增产物进行核酸序列测定,同时对3例患者的标本应用半巢式RT-PCR检测另一位点SARS-CoV核酸片段,并应用常规实时RT-PCR技术及改良实时RT-PCR技术进行检测。结果 3例患者的巢式RT-PCR检测结果2例阳性,4例疑似和27名医学观察者均为阴性;阳性扩增产物的核酸序列与SAILS-CoV基因组相应部分序列完全一致。3例患者标本的另一位点的半巢式RT-PCR及实时RT-PCR结果均相同。在检测低拷贝数标本时,常规实时RT-PCR技术在约35个循环后出现弱阳性信号,但改良的巢式实时RT-PCR技术可使强阳性信号在10个扩增循环后出现。结论 双位点RT-PCR方法是提高检测准确性的有效方法,改良巢式实时RT-PCR技术较常规实时RT-PCR技术具有更高的灵敏度。     

Cluster of cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome among Toronto healthcare workers after implementation of infection control precautions: a case series.

OBJECTIVE: To review the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) infection control practices, the types of exposure to patients with SARS, and the activities associated with treatment of such patients among healthcare workers (HCWs) who developed SARS in Toronto, Canada, after SARS-specific infection control precautions had been implemented. METHODS: A retrospective review of work logs and patient assignments, detailed review of medical records of patients with SARS, and comprehensive telephone-based interviews of HCWs who met the case definition for SARS after implementation of infection control precautions. RESULTS: Seventeen HCWs from 6 hospitals developed disease that met the case definition for SARS after implementation of infection control precautions. These HCWs had a mean age (+/-SD) of 39+/-2.3 years. Two HCWs were not interviewed because of illness. Of the remaining 15, only 9 (60%) reported that they had received formal infection control training. Thirteen HCWs (87%) were unsure of proper order in which personal protective equipment should be donned and doffed. Six HCWs (40%) reused items (eg, stethoscopes, goggles, and cleaning equipment) elsewhere on the ward after initial use in a room in which a patient with SARS was staying. Use of masks, gowns, gloves, and eyewear was inconsistent among HCWs. Eight (54%) reported that they were aware of a breach in infection control precautions. HCWs reported fatigue due to an increased number and length of shifts; participants worked a median of 10 shifts during the 10 days before onset of symptoms. Seven HCWs were involved in the intubation of a patient with SARS. One HCW died, and the remaining 16 recovered. CONCLUSION: Multiple factors were likely responsible for SARS in these HCWs, including the performance of high-risk patient care procedures, inconsistent use of personal protective equipment, fatigue, and lack of adequate infection control training.     

Using an integrated infection control strategy during outbreak control to minimize nosocomial infection of severe acute respiratory syndrome among healthcare workers

Healthcare workers (HCWs) are at risk of acquiring severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) while caring for SARS patients. Personal protective equipment and negative pressure isolation rooms (NPIRs) have not been completely successful in protecting HCWs. We introduced an innovative, integrated infection control strategy involving triaging patients using barriers, zones of risk, and extensive installation of alcohol dispensers for glove-on hand rubbing. This integrated infection control approach was implemented at a SARS designated hospital ('study hospital') where NPIRs were not available. The number of HCWs who contracted SARS in the study hospital was compared with the number of HCWs who contracted SARS in 86 Taiwan hospitals that did not use the integrated infection control strategy. Two HCWs contracted SARS in the study hospital (0.03 cases/bed) compared with 93 HCWs in the other hospitals (0.13 cases/bed) during the same three-week period. Our strategy appeared to be effective in reducing the incidence of HCWs contracting SARS. The advantages included rapid implementation without NPIRs, flexibility to transfer patients, and re-inforcement for HCWs to comply with infection control procedures, especially handwashing. The efficacy and low cost are major advantages, especially in countries with large populations at risk and fewer economic resources.     

Prevalence of IgG antibody to SARS-associated coronavirus in animal traders--Guangdong Province, China, 2003

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was identified in 2003 as an infectious disease caused by the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV), a member of the coronavirus family not observed previously in humans. Because its sequence data differ from that of known human coronaviruses, SARS-CoV is suspected to have crossed the species barrier between an animal host and humans. The SARS outbreak began in China's Guangdong Province, where approximately 1,500 probable cases were identified during November 2002-June 2003. Detection of SARS-like coronavirus has been reported previously in masked palm civets (sometimes called civet cats) and a raccoon dog for sale in a live animal market in Shenzhen municipality. This report summarizes results of an investigation conducted by public health authorities in Guangdong Province, which compared the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV IgG antibody in animal traders (i.e., workers in live animal markets) with that of persons in control groups. The results indicated that 13% of the animal traders, none of whom had SARS diagnosed, had IgG antibody to SARS-CoV, compared with 1%-3% of persons in three control groups. Although the results provide indirect support for the hypothesis of an animal origin for SARS, they also underscore the need for detailed patient histories and more focused animal studies to confirm an animal origin for SARS.     

我市医务人员严重急性呼吸综合征医院感染流行原因调查与对策

目的 调查某市医务人员感染严重急性呼吸综合征(severe acute respiratory syndrome，SARS)的途径及危险因素。方法 对直接参加过抢救和间接接触SARS患而被感染的医务人员采取统一填表、座谈、走访、电话采访等方式进行调查。结果 调查三所医院感染SARS的医务人员共88人，占全市发病医务人员总人数的87．13％。导致医务人员易感的原因是：对疾病缺乏认识，防范意识不强；管理网络不健全；患隐瞒流行病史；隔离环境及防护用品达不到要求等。结论 重视医院感染管理及对医务人员的医院感染知识培训，强化消毒隔离和自我保护意识，是控制医院感染流行及保护医务人员的有力措施。     

Use of quarantine to prevent transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome--Taiwan, 2003

On July 5, 2003, Taiwan was removed from the World Health Organization (WHO) list of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-affected countries. As of July 9, a total of 671 probable cases of SARS had been reported in Taiwan. On February 21, the first identified SARS patient in Taiwan returned from travel to Guangdong Province, mainland China, by way of Hong Kong. Initial efforts to control SARS appeared to be effective; these efforts included isolation of suspect and probable SARS patients, use of personal protective equipment (PPE) for health-care workers (HCWs) and visitors, and quarantine of contacts of known SARS patients. However, beginning in mid-April, unrecognized cases of SARS led to a large nosocomial cluster and subsequent SARS-associated coronavirus transmission to other health-care facilities and community settings. In response to the growing epidemic, additional measures were taken to limit nosocomial and community transmission of SARS, including more widespread use of quarantine. By the end of the epidemic, 131,132 persons had been placed in quarantine, including 50,319 close contacts of SARS patients and 80,813 travelers from WHO-designated SARS-affected areas. This report describes the quarantine measures used in Taiwan and discusses the need for further evaluation of quarantine and other control measures used to prevent SARS.     

检测SARS冠状病毒的套式RT-PCR方法的建立与初步应用

[目的]建立套式RT-PCR检测SARS冠状病毒的方法。[方法]从广东地区SARS患者尸解肺组织、咽拭子、嗽口水及本实验室分离的SARS冠状病毒（SAPS—CoV）组织培养上清中提取RNA，利用针对SARS冠状病毒多聚酶基因的特异性引物，进行逆转录及套式PCR扩增。扩增出的阳性片段连接入pGEM—T载体中，测序后比较其与其他已知SARS冠状病毒的同源性。[结果]从SARS患者尸解肺组织、咽拭子、嗽口水及SARS冠状病毒组织培养上清中均可扩增出阳性片段，经测序后证实是SARS冠状病毒特有序列。[结论]针对SARS冠状病毒多泵酶基因所建立的套式RT—PCR方法适用于临床标本及组织培养标本中SARS冠状病毒的检测。     

Impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome care on the general health status of healthcare workers in taiwan.

BACKGROUND: The impact of the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was enormous, but few studies have focused on the infectious and general health status of healthcare workers (HCWs) who treated patients with SARS. DESIGN: We prospectively evaluated the general health status of HCWs during the SARS epidemic.The Medical Outcome Study Short-Form 36 Survey was given to all HCWs immediately after caring for patients with SARS and 4 weeks after self-quarantine and off-duty shifts. Tests for detection of SARS coronavirus antibody were performed for HCWs at these 2 time points and for control subjects during the SARS epidemic. SETTING: Tertiary care referral center in Taipei, Taiwan. SUBJECTS: Ninety SARS-care task force members (SARS HCWs) and 82 control subjects. RESULTS: All serum specimens tested negative for SARS antibody. Survey scores for SARS HCWs immediately after care were significantly lower than those for the control group (P<.05 by the t test) in 6 categories. Vitality, social functioning, and mental health immediately after care and vitality and mental health after self-quarantine and off-duty shifts were among the worst subscales. The social functioning, role emotional, and role physical subscales significantly improved after self-quarantine and off-duty shifts (P<.05, by paired t test). The length of contact time (mean number of contact-hours per day) with patients with SARS was associated with some subscales (role emotional, role physical, and mental health) to a mild extent. The total number of contact-hours with symptomatic patients with SARS was a borderline predictor (adjusted R2=0.069; P=.038) of mental health score. CONCLUSIONS: The impact of the SARS outbreak on SARS HCWs was significant in many dimensions of general health. The vitality and mental health status of SARS HCWs 1 month after self-quarantine and off-duty shifts remained inferior to those of the control group.     

如何预防医务人员COVID-19感染：来自中国武汉的经验

 在新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）大流行的背景下,全球已有数以千计的医务人员感染新型冠状病毒（SARS-CoV-2）,并有人因此失去生命。在疫情早期,中国发生了医务人员感染。由于对SARS-CoV-2的特点认识有限,湖北有3,000多名医务人员在疫情暴发初期感染了SARS-CoV-2。由于当地医院医务人员工作超负荷,超过4.2万名医务人员（包括军队医务人员）,从全国各地被派往湖北。在疫情最严重的时期,中国有十分之一的重症监护医生在武汉工作。在中国抗击COVID-19的过程中,虽然在疫情早期发生了一定数量的医务人员感染SARS-CoV-2,但通过及时采取预防措施,包括快速诊断,及时对患者进行隔离,强调医务人员的安全,加强医务人员基本防护知识培训和统一管理等有效防护措施,国家援鄂医疗队42,632名队员最终未报告感染,并且当地医院医务人员感染病例显著减少,说明医务人员院内感染COVID-19是完全可以预防的。本文旨在阐述中国武汉疫情期间,如何通过采取有效措施预防医务人员感染SARS-CoV-2。     

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and healthcare workers

The recent outbreak of severe acute respiratory synt drome (SARS) was spread by international air travel, a direct result of globalization. The disease is caused by a novel coronavirus, transmitted from human to human by droplets or by direct contact. Healthcare workers (HCWs) were at high risk and accounted for a fifth of all cases globally. Risk factors for infection in HCWs included lack of awareness and preparedness when the disease first struck, poor institutional infection control measures, lack of training in infection control procedures, poor compliance with the use of personal protection equipment (PPE), exposure to high-risk procedures such as intubation and nebulization, and exposure to unsuspected SARS patients. Measures to prevent nosocomial infection included establishing isolation wards for triage, SARS patients, and step-down; training and monitoring hospital staff in infection-control procedures; active and passive screening of HCWs; enforcement of droplet and contact precautions; and compliance with the use of PPE.     

SARS恢复期患者血液与排泄物中SARS-CoV RNA的检测

目的应用巢式逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT—PCR)检测严重急性呼吸综合征(SAILS)恢复期患者血液与排泄物中的病毒RNA。方法对连续3次收集的23例确诊SARS恢复期(病程≥21天)患者的血、尿、痰、粪便标本进行核酸提取，设计特异性内外引物，使用巢式RT—PcR的方法进行病毒RNA检测。结果通过巢式RT—PCR，共检测到6份阳性标本，其中粪便标本中检测到4份，检出率为5．8％；痰标本中检测到2份，检出率为2．9％。在尿液和血液标本中未检测到病毒．RNA。结论个别SARS恢复期患者排泄物中有SARS病毒RNA存在，因此对恢复期患者的排泄物应慎重处理，对其引起SARS的再次传播的危险性需要进一步评估。     

Nosocomial transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis found through screening for severe acute respiratory syndrome--Taipei, Taiwan, 2003

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has highlighted the importance of hospital infection-control programs. Prevention of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission also requires effective infection control in health-care facilities. In Taipei, Taiwan, an area with moderate to high incidence of tuberculosis (TB) (50-74 cases per 100,000 population), health-care workers (HCWs) are at increased risk for M. tuberculosis (Taiwan Center for Disease Control, unpublished data, 2002). In April 2003, SARS-related screening in a hospital in Taipei resulted in the detection of suspected TB among HCWs. This report summarizes how SARS screening led to the discovery of 60 cases of TB. HCWs in Taiwan should remain vigilant for cases of TB so persons suspected of having TB are evaluated and treated promptly.     

Taiwan's traffic control bundle and the elimination of nosocomial severe acute respiratory syndrome among healthcare workers

The traffic control bundle consists of procedures designed to help prevent epidemic nosocomial infection. We retrospectively studied the serial infection control measures to determine factors most effective in preventing nosocomial infections of healthcare workers (HCWs) during the 2003 Taiwanese severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic. Fever screening stations, triage of fever patients, separating SARS patients from other patients, separation of entrances and passageways between patients and HCWs, and increasing hand-washing facilities all demonstrated a protective effect for HCWs (univariate analysis; P<0.05). By multiple logistic regression: (i) checkpoint alcohol dispensers for glove-on hand rubbing between zones of risk, and (ii) fever screening at the fever screen station outside the emergency department, were the significant methods effectively minimising nosocomial SARS infection of HCWs (P<0.05). The traffic control bundle should be implemented in future epidemics as a tool to achieve strict infection control measures.     

新冠疫情期间口腔医疗机构医务人员感染防控知信行调查

目的 了解某口腔医疗机构疫情期间医务人员对新型冠状病毒肺炎(新冠肺炎)感控知识的认知现状及相关影响因素,为开展突发传染病疫情防控培训提供工作思路.方法 采用网络问卷星方式,对某口腔医疗机构的各级各类岗位医务人员集中时段进行问卷调查,分析调查结果.结果 共收回问卷1945份,口腔医疗机构医务人员新冠肺炎防控知识平均得分为...     

The 2003 SARS outbreak and its impact on infection control practices

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) emerged recently as a new infectious disease that was transmitted efficiently in the healthcare setting and particularly affected healthcare workers (HCWs), patients and visitors. The efficiency of transmission within healthcare facilities was recognised following significant hospital outbreaks of SARS in Canada, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam. The causative agent of SARS was identified as a novel coronavirus, the SARS coronavirus. This was largely spread by direct or indirect contact with large respiratory droplets, although airborne transmission has also been reported. High infection rates among HCWs led initially to the theory that SARS was highly contagious and the concept of 'super-spreading events'. Such events illustrated that lack of infection control (IC) measures or failure to comply with IC precautions could lead to large-scale hospital outbreaks. SARS was eventually contained by the stringent application of IC measures that limited exposure of HCWs to potentially infectious individuals. As the 'global village' becomes smaller and other microbial threats to health emerge, or re-emerge, there is an urgent need to develop a global strategy for infection control in hospitals. This paper provides an overview of the main IC practices employed during the 2003 SARS outbreak, including management measures, dedicated SARS hospitals, personal protective equipment, isolation, handwashing, environmental decontamination, education and training. The psychological and psychosocial impact on HCWs during the outbreak are also discussed. Requirements for IC programmes in the post-SARS period are proposed based on the major lessons learnt from the SARS outbreak.     

SARS surveillance during emergency public health response, United States, March-July 2003

In response to the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), the United States established national surveillance using a sensitive case definition incorporating clinical, epidemiologic, and laboratory criteria. Of 1,460 unexplained respiratory illnesses reported by state and local health departments to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from March 17 to July 30, 2003, a total of 398 (27%) met clinical and epidemiologic SARS case criteria. Of these, 72 (18%) were probable cases with radiographic evidence of pneumonia. Eight (2%) were laboratory-confirmed SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infections, 206 (52%) were SARS-CoV negative, and 184 (46%) had undetermined SARS-CoV status because of missing convalescent-phase serum specimens. Thirty-one percent (124/398) of case-patients were hospitalized; none died. Travel was the most common epidemiologic link (329/398, 83%), and mainland China was the affected area most commonly visited. One case of possible household transmission was reported, and no laboratory-confirmed infections occurred among healthcare workers. Successes and limitations of this emergency surveillance can guide preparations for future outbreaks of SARS or respiratory diseases of unknown etiology.