Energy and integrated dose dependence of MOSFET dosimeter sensitivity for irradiation energies between 30 kV and 60Co

Since metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) medical applications in radiotherapy and radiology are gaining popularity, evaluating them under radiation of different energies is of major interest. This study aims at a characterization of MOSFET sensitivity with regard to total integrated dose. Sensitivity is expressed by the water calibration factor (CFw) and allows the user to associate the voltage difference reading displayed by the device to a dose value in water at the MOSFET location. The CFw of seven p-type dual-bias MOSFETs were measured for several accumulated doses. The radiation sources used were a 60Co unit ((E)gamma: 1.25 MeV), an 192Ir high dose rate unit ((E)gamma: 380 keV), and an orthovoltage unit providing two x-ray energy spectra for tube voltages of 30 kV((E)gamma:14.8 KeV) and 150 kV((E)gamma:70.1 keV). The CFw value diminishes with increasing threshold voltage, especially for low-energy radiation. It was stable for 60Co irradiations, while it decreased 6%, 5%, and 15% for beam energies of 192Ir, 150 kV, and 30 kV, respectively. The decrease rate is higher for the first half of the device lifetime. This behavior is explained by an alteration of the effective electric field applied to the MOSFET during irradiation, caused by the accumulation of holes at the Si-SiO2 interface. It is strongly dependent on the nature of the radiation, and particularly affects low x-ray energies. A frequent calibration of the device for this radiation type is essential in order to achieve adequate measurement accuracy, especially in low-energy applications, such as superficial therapy, brachytherapy, and diagnostic and interventional radiology.     

Formaldehyde increases MAGIC gel dosimeter melting point and sensitivity

Polymeric gel dosimeters are being used to verify three-dimensional (3D) dose distributions of different types of radiotherapy treatments, especially the most complexes ones. An important factor that can limit the wider use of this kind of dosimeter is temperature, as gel melting can destroy 3D information. This work shows that adding formaldehyde to the gel preparation increases the melting point, allowing its use in warmer environments, including up to body temperature. An addition of 3% in mass of the formaldehyde solution to a MAGIC type gel dosimeter increased its melting point from 25 to 69 degrees C. Also important were a 12.5% increase in gel sensitivity and an expressive decrease in relaxation rate R2 uncertainty.     

Energy and dose rate dependence of BANG-2 polymer-gel dosimeter.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate dependence of BANG-2 polymer-gel dosimeter sensitivity on different photon and electron energies as well as on different mean dose rates expressed as repetition rates for a standard clinically used linear accelerator. The sensitivity of the dosimeter was represented by the slope of calibration curve in the linear region measured for each modality. A calibration curve (in the linear region) based on five dosimeters (four irradiated and one background) was obtained for each photon and electron energy and different repetition rates. Dosimeter sensitivity dependence on energy was studied for 4, 6, and 18 MV x-ray photons and for nominal electron energies 9, 12, 16, and 20 MeV. Dosimeter sensitivity dependence on mean dose rate was separately studied for electron and photon beams with the use of repetition rates 80, 160, 240, 320, and 400 MU min(-1). Evaluation of dosimeters was performed on Siemens MAGNETOM EXPERT 1T scanner in the head coil. A multiecho sequence with 16 equidistant echoes was used for the evaluation of irradiated polymer-gel dosimeters. The parameters of the sequence were as follows: TR 2000 ms, TE 22.5-360.0 ms, slice thickness 5 mm, FOV 255 mm, one acquisition. There was observed a trend in polymer-gel dosimeter sensitivity dependence on the quality index of high energy x-ray beams used and on mean electron energy absorbed in the center of the dosimeter. Polymer-gel dosimeter sensitivity was decreasing with increasing photon or electron energy. There was observed no trend in polymer-gel dosimeter sensitivity dependence on mean dose rate expressed as a repetition rate for both photon and electron beams.     

Energy and angular distributions of photons from medical linear accelerators

For accurate three-dimensional treatment planning, new models of dose calculations are being developed which require the knowledge of the energy spectra and angular distributions of the photons incident on the surface of the patient. Knowledge of the spectra is also useful in other applications, including the design of filters and beam modifying devices and determination of factors to convert ionization chamber measurements to dose. We have used Monte Carlo code (EGS) to compute photon spectra for a number of different linear accelerators. Both the target and the flattening filter have been accurately modeled. We find the mean photon energy to have a value lower than the generally perceived value of one-third the maximum energy. As expected, the spectra become softer as the distance from the central axis increases. Verification of the spectra is performed by computing dose distributions and half-value layers in water using the calculated spectra and comparing the results with measured data. We also examined the angular distributions of photons incident on the surface of the phantom. In currently used models of dose computations, it is assumed that the angular distribution of photons with respect to fan lines emanating from the source is negligible. Although the angular spread of photons with respect to the incident direction has been found to be small, its contribution to the diffuseness of the beam boundaries is significant.     

Energy dependence (75 kVp to 18 MV) of radiochromic films assessed using a real-time optical dosimeter

The response of radiochromic film, GafChromic EBT, was investigated for dependence on x-ray beam energy using a previously reported real-time optical readout approach. X-ray beams of energy from 75 kVp to 18 MV were employed. The dose-induced change in optical density for the EBT film was compared to values obtained for GafChromic HS and MD-55 films, exposed under the same conditions. All responses were normalized to that obtained for 60Co irradiation. While change in optical density for 1 Gy of applied dose as measured with HS and MD-55 films decreased by approximately 40% at low energies, the mean change in optical density of EBT film remained within 3% of that in the 60Co beam over the entire energy range.     

Evaluation of the basic properties of the BANGkit gel dosimeter

We evaluated the basic properties of a commercially available BANGkit gel dosimeter, which is a normoxic type of BANG gel. This gel-kit has the same composition as the BANG 3 gel, but is fully oxygenated. To exclude oxygen, oxygen scavenging ascorbic acid and copper sulfate as a catalyst are used. The properties that we examined are the effects of the concentrations of copper sulfate and ascorbic acid on the response, the reproducibility, the long-term stability, the temperature effect at irradiation and the dose-rate effect. In our results, the excellent linear fit of the R2-dose response in a dose range for clinical use and its reproducibility were observed. The precision of a linear fit was preserved for about 3 weeks. The temperature at irradiation showed a significant effect on the dose response. Although the dose-rate dependence in the high-dose range was observed, it was negligible for the clinical dose range up to 270 cGy. In conclusion, this gel dosimeter is thought to be utilizable in clinical practice, while we have to pay attention to the temperature during the entire measurement processes, and additionally there is room for improvement in the linearity and the dose-rate dependence in the high-dose range.     

Comparison of histamine bronchial challenges with the Wright nebulizer and the dosimeter

In twenty adult asthmatics studied in a stable state, histamine bronchial challenges were carried out at one-week intervals with the Wright nebulizer and with the dosimeter-DeVilbiss apparatus. Dose-response curves were analysed for sensitivity, defined as the minimal histamine dose causing a 20% fall in FEV₁ (PC₂₀), and for reactivity, defined as the slope of the dose-response curve once the reaction starts to occur. A significant relationship (r=0·80) was found for the sensitivity obtained with the two nebulizers. PC₂₀ was indeed reproducible within a two folds concentration of histamine in sixteen of the twenty patients. A significant difference (P < 0·01) was found in the reactivity to the two different apparatus, reactivity being greater with the Wright nebulizer in twelve out of fifteen patients so tested. Sensitivity and reactivity showed a borderline relationship (r=0·47) with the Wright nebulizer but not with the dosimeter. A significant correlation (P < 0·05) was found to exist between the initial FEV₁ (in % of the predicted value) and the observed sensitivity and reactivity as assessed with the Wright nebulizer, but not as assessed with the dosimeter. We conclude that histamine bronchial challenges with the Wright nebulizer and with the dosimeter yield reproducible results if the threshold of a 20% fall in FEV₁ is taken as positive. However, the two methods produce different results in terms of reactivity.     

Energy dependence of the neutron sensitivity of C--CO2, Mg--Ar and TE--TE ionisation chambers.

The neutron sensitivity relative to 60Co of commercially available C--CO2, Mg--Ar and TE--TE ionisation chambers was measured as a function of energy from 1 to 44 MeV. The sensitivity function was obtained by the method of Kuchnir, Vyborny and Skaggs from differences in measurements made at two angles in mixed fields having an isotropic gamma-ray component. Such fields were produced by bombardment of a thick beryllium target with 16 and 28 MeV deuterons, 44 MeV 3He-ions and 35 and 46 MeV protons. The results show that the relative neutron sensitivity of the C--CO2 and Mg--Ar chambers increases continuously with energy, whereas that of the TE--TE chamber is relatively constant.     

Characterization of a new radiochromic three-dimensional dosimeter

The development of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) has created a clear need for a dosimeter that can accurately and conveniently measure dose distributions in three dimensions to assure treatment quality. PRESAGE is a new three dimensional (3D) dosimetry material consisting of an optically clear polyurethane matrix, containing a leuco dye that exhibits a radiochromic response when exposed to ionizing radiation. A number of potential advantages accrue over other gel dosimeters, including insensitivity to oxygen, radiation induced light absorption contrast rather than scattering contrast, and a solid texture amenable to machining to a variety of shapes and sizes without the requirement of an external container. In this paper, we introduce an efficient method to investigate the basic properties of a 3D dosimetry material that exhibits an optical dose response. The method is applied here to study the key aspects of the optical dose response of PRESAGE: linearity, dose rate dependency, reproducibility, stability, spectral changes in absorption, and temperature effects. PRESAGE was prepared in 1 x 1 x 4.5 cm3 optical cuvettes for convenience and was irradiated by both photon and electron beams to different doses, dose rates, and energies. Longer PRESAGE columns (2 x 2 x 13 cm3) were formed without an external container, for measurements of photon and high energy electron depth-dose curves. A linear optical scanning technique was used to detect the depth distribution of radiation induced optical density (OD) change along the PRESAGE columns and cuvettes. Measured depth-OD curves were compared with percent depth dose (PDD). Results indicate that PRESAGE has a linear optical response to radiation dose (with a root mean square error of -1%), little dependency on dose rate (-2%), high intrabatch reproducibility (< 2%), and can be stable (-2%) during 2 hours to 2 days post irradiation. Accurate PRESAGE dosimetry requires temperature control within 1 degrees C. Variations in the PRESAGE formulation yield corresponding variations in sensitivity, stability, and density. CT numbers in the range 100-470 were observed. In conclusion, the small volume studies presented here indicate PRESAGE to be a promising, versatile, and practical new dosimetry material with applicability for radiation therapy.     

Radiation sensitivity of Bloom's syndrome lymphocytes during S and G2 phases

In order to study chromosome sensitivity of Bloom's syndrome (BS) cells in relation to the replication stage, gamma-ray irradiation was performed immediately before adding bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) to lymphocyte cultures of one BS patient and of one control. It was found that BS cells are much more sensitive to the irradiation than control cells at the end of S and at G2 phases. The rate of induction of chromosome breaks is significantly increased and that of chromatid breaks and exchanges is also increased, though to a lesser degree. Our results also favor the existence of a cell subpopulation in BS characterized by a slow cycle, a high spontaneous chromosome aberration rate, and a high radiation sensitivity.     

Modelling the dynamic dose response of an nMAG polymer gel dosimeter

Gel dosimetry measures the absorbed radiation dose with high spatial resolution in 3D. However, recently published data show that the response of metacrylic-based polymer gels depends on the segmented delivery pattern, which could potentially be a considerable disadvantage for measurements of modern dynamic radiotherapy techniques. The aim of this study is to design a dynamic compartment model for the response of a gel dosimeter, exposed to an arbitrary irradiation pattern (segmented delivery and intensity modulation), in order to evaluate the associated effects on absorbed dose measurements. The model is based on the separation of the protons affecting the magnetic resonance signal (i.e. the R2 value) into six compartments, described by a set of differential equations. The model is used to calculate R2 values for a number of different segmented delivery patterns between 0-4 Gy over 1-33 fractions. Very good agreement is found between calculated and measured R2 values, with an average difference of 0.3 ± 1.1% (1 SD). The model is also used to predict the behaviour of a gel dosimeter exposed to irradiation according to typical IMRT, VMAT and respiratory gating scenarios. The calculated R2 values are approximately independent of the segmented delivery, given that the same total dose is delivered during the same total time. It is concluded that this study helps to improve the theoretical understanding of the dependence of metacrylic-based polymer gel response to segmented radiation delivery.     

Investigation of the PAGAT polymer gel dosimeter using magnetic resonance imaging

Investigation of the normoxic PAGAT polymer gel dosimeter has been undertaken. The concentrations of the chemical components of the gel were varied and its response to ionizing radiation evaluated. Using MRI, the formulation to give the maximum change in the transverse relaxation rate R2 was determined to be 4.5% N, N'-methylene-bis-acrylamide (bis), 4.5% acrylamide (AA), 5% gelatine, 5 mM tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride (THPC), 0.01 mM hydroquinone (HQ) and 86% H2O. The optimal post-manufacture irradiation and post-irradiation imaging times were both determined to be 12 h. The R2-dose response was linear up to 7 Gy with R2-dose sensitivities of (0.183 +/- 0.005) s(-1) Gy(-1), (0.182 +/- 0.005) s(-1) Gy(-1) and (0.192 +/- 0.005) s(-1) Gy(-1) when imaged at 12 h, 7 days and 24 days post-irradiation, respectively. The R2-dose sensitivities were within the range of previously published values for the hypoxic PAG formulations. For the imaging parameters used in this study the optimum dose resolution was achieved for low doses. The normalized R2 edge response showed a high degree of spatial stability over a 24 day period. This study has shown that the normoxic PAGAT polymer gel has the properties of a dosimetric tool, which can be used in clinical radiotherapy. The PAGAT polymer gel has been shown to have similar qualities to the PAG polymer gel, while offering the significant advantage of simplification of the manufacturing procedure.     

Contamination and sensitivity issues with a real-time universal 16S rRNA PCR

A set of universal oligonucleotide primers specific for the conserved regions of the eubacterial 16S rRNA gene was designed for use with the real-time PCR Applied Biosystems 7700 (TaqMan) system. During the development of this PCR, problems were noted with the use of this gene as an amplification target. Contamination of reagents with bacterial DNA was a major problem exacerbated by the highly sensitive nature of the real-time PCR chemistry. This was compounded by the use of a small amplicon of approximately 100 bases, as is necessary with TaqMan chemistry. In an attempt to overcome this problem, several methodologies were applied. Certain treatments were more effective than others in eliminating the contaminating DNA; however, to achieve this there was a decrease in sensitivity. With UV irradiation there was a 4-log reduction in PCR sensitivity, with 8-methoxypsoralen activity facilitated by UV there was between a 5- and a 7-log reduction, and with DNase alone and in combination with restriction digestion there was a 1.66-log reduction. Restriction endonuclease treatment singly and together did not reduce the level of contaminating DNA. Without the development of ultrapure Taq DNA polymerase, ultrapure reagents, and plasticware guaranteed to be free of DNA, the implementation of a PCR for detection of eubacterial 16S rRNA with the TaqMan system will continue to be problematical.     

Development and optimization of a 2-hydroxyethylacrylate MRI polymer gel dosimeter

In this study, radiation induced changes in a polymer gel dosimeter manufactured using 2-hydroxyethylacrylate (HEA) and N,N'-methylene-bisacrylamide (BIS) were investigated using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and FT-Raman spectroscopy. The variation in magnetic resonance relaxation time (T2) with absorbed dose was modelled assuming fast exchange of magnetization. Overall good agreement between the model and experimental data was obtained. However, comparison with FT-Raman data suggests that not all the protons attached to the polymer contribute to the relaxation process. Furthermore, for certain compositions improved agreement with experimental data was achieved when a lower fraction of polymer protons available for exchange with water was assumed in the low dose region. This indicates that the T2 value is influenced by the composition and topology of the formed polymer, which may vary with absorbed dose. The concept of percentage dose resolution (Dp delta, %) was introduced to enable optimization of gel compositions for use in relative dosimetry applications. This concept was applied to demonstrate the effects of varying the gelatine concentration, the total fraction of monomer/crosslinker (%T) and the relative fraction of crosslinker (%C) on gel performance in HEA gels as well as compare the performance of HEA and a standard polyacrylamide gel (PAG). The percentage dose resolution was improved for all HEA gels compared to the PAG dosimeter containing 3% acrylamide and 3% BIS. Increasing the total concentration of monomer was shown to have the largest single effect. In the range of doses of interest for clinical radiation therapy, Dp delta, % for the optimal HEA gel (4% HEA, 4% BIS) was lower than 2.3%, compared to 3.8% for the PAG dosimeter.