Breast reconstruction after mastectomy

The goal of breast reconstruction is to reconstruct breasts which meet the patient's expectations both psychologically and aesthetically, while adhering to the principles of sound oncological management. Breast reconstruction is usually started around 3 to 9 mos after mastectomy. The simplest method of reconstruction uses tissue available after mastectomy and a silicone implant. The recent advances with tissue expansion of the skin of the mastectomy site can permit reconstruction without the use of a flap. The latissimus dorsi flap from the back is a useful source of muscle and skin and the transverse rectus abdominus musculocutaneous flap provides tissue from the lower abdomen enabling breast reconstruction without the use of a silicone implant. Fat and skin from the buttocks may be used in a microsurgical transfer technique. Prophylactic mastectomy and immediate breast reconstruction are still controversial, but are options for the woman who is worried about the development of breast cancer. The reconstruction of the nipple and areola is only done after reconstructed breast symmetry is ascertained.     

Timing of breast reconstruction: immediate versus delayed

Breast reconstruction is an integral part of treatment of breast cancer. Immediate reconstruction is breast reconstruction that is done at the same surgery as the mastectomy, whereas delayed reconstruction is done months or years after the mastectomy. Immediate and delayed reconstruction can be accomplished with autologous tissue flaps or prosthetic breast implants. The esthetic result, psychosocial effect, and cost of breast reconstruction are better with immediate reconstruction, but the risk of surgical complications is less with delayed reconstruction. Although immediate reconstruction is oncologically safe and esthetically advantageous, nationwide less than 20% of patients having a mastectomy have immediate breast reconstruction. Radiation treatment before or after mastectomy has a negative impact on the outcome of breast reconstruction and is one important factor to be considered in determining the optimal timing for breast reconstruction.     

游离腹部皮瓣乳房重建的应用及研究进展

乳腺癌发病率居女性新发恶性肿瘤的第一位,外科治疗是重要的治疗手段之一。全乳切除术后乳房重建能在不影响肿瘤学安全性的前提下,提高患者的生存质量,其中,自体组织乳房重建因其特有的优势成为乳房重建的重要方式之一,而游离腹部皮瓣是自体组织乳房重建中最理想的材料。该研究将对游离腹部皮瓣乳房重建手术的临床应用、手术时机及并发症进行综述,旨在探讨游离腹部皮瓣乳房重建的应用及研究进展。     

Current Controversies in Breast Cancer Surgery

Contemporary management of the axilla in breast cancer surgery remains in evolution. Axillary lymph node status in breast cancer is a major prognostic factor and remains integral to guiding adjuvant treatment decisions. There remains controversy regarding the management of the node-positive axilla in clinically node-negative primary breast cancer. Trials to date have suggested re-evaluation of the historical therapeutic strategy that a positive sentinel node requires axillary node dissection. However, further evidence is required before modern clinical management of the axilla should be altered. As patient awareness and technical expertise grow, national rates of breast reconstruction after mastectomy continue to rise. Oncoplastic techniques continue to evolve and many patients are suitable for a plethora of reconstructive options. Despite the widespread practice of breast reconstruction globally, there is limited randomised evidence comparing the optimal type and/or timing of breast reconstruction on which to base practice. Breast reconstruction type is either purely autologous, implant-based or a combination of these two techniques. We explore the benefits and limitations of these techniques and some of the key findings of the National Mastectomy and Breast Reconstruction Audit. The timing of reconstruction after mastectomy is either immediate (a single procedure) or delayed (for an indefinite period after mastectomy). The ideal reconstruction is one that is best aligned to the patient's expectations, as this will achieve the highest levels of long-term patient satisfaction. Selecting the optimal type of breast reconstruction at the right time for the right patient remains the key challenge in breast reconstruction.     

Breast reconstruction using tissue expanders

Breast reconstruction options are available to virtually all women undergoing mastectomy. Breast reconstruction may increase the woman's self-esteem and foster a more positive body image. Tissue expansion provides a means of developing breast symmetry with minimal surgical intervention. It can be used when the skin and soft tissue remaining after mastectomy are of good quality but inadequate quantity. The nurse's role encompasses physical and psychological support and patient education.     

Microsurgical breast reconstruction

Breast cancer, the most common cancer diagnosed in American women, often necessitates mastectomy. Many studies have demonstrated improved quality of life and well-being after breast reconstruction. Numerous techniques are available for breast reconstruction including tissue expander implants and autologous tissues. Microsurgical tissue transfer involves the use of excess skin and fat (flaps) from a remote location to reconstruct the breast. Most often, tissues are transferred from the abdomen and buttocks. Less commonly, thigh flaps are used. These operations can provide durable, esthetic reconstructions. In addition, advances in microsurgical techniques have improved operative success rates to the range of 99%. The selection of an appropriate flap for microsurgical breast reconstruction is multifactorial and is based on patient and oncologic factors. These factors include patient comorbidities, body habitus/availability of donor tissues, cancer stage, and the need for postoperative adjuvant radiation therapy, as well as the risk of cancer in the contralateral breast. Appropriate choice of flap and surgical technique can minimize the risk of operative complications. Additionally, several large series have established that microsurgical breast reconstruction has no impact on survival, or locoregional/distant recurrence rates.     

Autologous tissue breast reconstruction following the application of tissue expander

Breast reconstruction is usually performed with autologous tissue or mammary prostheses, and a single method is generally selected for the most reconstruction cases. We combined these two methods of breast reconstruction. In the first stage, a tissue expander was applied to maintain space for the breast, and in the next stage the space was replaced with autologous tissue. This combined method was performed in 7 cases with good results. Some advantages or this method became clear, especially in the case of immediate breast reconstruction: 1) the patient has time to objectively consider breast reconstruction using autologous tissue after the emotional trauma of mastectomy had subsided 2) no additional surgical scar remains on the chest wall 3) the exact site and the exact amount of autologous tissue can be ascertained by measuring the volume of the tissue expander 4) there is no breast-less period, and 5) the patient’s daily life is unaffected. We believe this combined procedure will contribute to a better quality of life for those who experience breast cancer and mastectomy as well as other conventional reconstructive procedures.     

乳腺癌乳房整形外科应用现状与进展

 乳腺癌术后乳房重建已成为乳腺癌综合治疗不可或缺的一部分,旨在不影响乳腺癌预后的基础上,提高患者生活质量。虽然中国乳腺癌乳房整形外科起步较早,但近几年才逐渐进入快速发展时期,且与发达国家仍存在较大差距。乳腺癌术后乳房重建整形技术主要包括肿瘤保乳整形技术以及全乳切除术后乳房重建,而乳房重建又可分为自体皮瓣重建及植入物重建。同时,脂肪移植、生物材料等重建辅助技术也在快速发展。国内首个较为全面细致的乳房重建指南,乳腺肿瘤整形与乳房重建专家共识将于今年发布,对乳房整形重建问题进行全面探讨和分析。在遵循乳房重建共识和指南的基础上,积极完善专科医生培训体系,建立更广泛深入的学科合作,从而促进我国乳腺癌术后乳房整形与重建技术的发展。       

State of the Art in Breast Reconstruction

In patients undergoing breast reconstruction after partial and total mastectomy, selecting the appropriate timing as well as the best method of reconstruction are essential to optimize the outcome. At M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, the timing of oncoplastic repair after partial mastectomy defects and breast reconstruction after mastectomy tends to dictate the technique for reconstruction. In patients undergoing repair of a partial mastectomy defect, immediate or delayed repair before radiation therapy allows for the use of the remaining breast tissue to perform the repair. Delayed repair after radiation therapy is usually performed with autologous fat grafting or a flap. Immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy is preferable for patients with a low risk of requiring postmastectomy radiation therapy (XRT) (stage I breast cancer, some stage II). In patients who are deemed preoperatively to be at an increased risk of requiring XRT (stage II breast cancer), delayed-immediate breast reconstruction may provide an additional option. Delayed-delayed reconstruction may be a consideration in patients known preoperatively to require XRT (stage III breast cancer), to allow for a skin-preserving delayed reconstruction after XRT. Newer techniques for breast reconstruction after mastectomy include one-stage implant, implant-based reconstruction plus acellular dermal matrix, autologous fat grafting after negative suction applied to chest wall, and perforator-based autologous tissue flaps. Often, the decision to perform a partial or total mastectomy depends upon reconstructive issues, not oncology-related considerations. Whether to repair a partial mastectomy defect or perform a total breast reconstruction after mastectomy is one of the most critical decisions in breast reconstruction.     

Plastisch-rekonstruktive Operationen bei Mammakarzinom

Around 60–80% of patients with early breast cancer can be treated with breast-conserving therapy. For cases in which the resection volume extends beyond quadrantectomy, an adequate breast shape can be achieved only with oncoplastic reconstructive surgical techniques. Breast reconstruction after mastectomy plays a significant role in the therapeutic management of breast cancer. The reconstruction of a fairly natural breast can support the healing process, enhancing the patient’s psychosocial and psychosexual well-being. Therefore, the subject of breast reconstruction should be discussed individually with each patient at the time of primary therapy planning; the discussion should cover whether the patient wants breast reconstruction, which operative techniques are recommended, and what the optimal timing of the procedure would be. Heterologous and autologous reconstruction techniques are based on expander or implant surgery as well as on pedicled or free flaps or a combination of the two. If postmastectomy radiation is necessary, implant reconstruction is not the first choice because of the high rates of capsular contracture and, thus, impaired aesthetic results.     

Reconstructive options after cancer surgery of the breast

Breast cancer is now treated either by conservative therapy or by mastectomy. In the first case, no reconstruction is usually necessary, although some patients require additional surgery for asymmetry, distortion or even severe damage, by surgery or radiotherapy, of the treated breast. In these cases, reconstructive surgery should be performed very carefully, taking full account of the risk of operating in irradiated tissues. Minor procedures are usually adequate, but major surgery, reconstruction with abdominal flap, is sometimes the only solution to solve difficult postradiotherapy disasters. When a mastectomy is the choice of the patient and the surgeon, immediate reconstruction is now performed more often than before, as expansive prostheses are now available, allowing immediate implantation without endangering the skin flaps. In most cases of mastectomy, however, reconstruction is performed as a secondary procedure, in two stages if possible (volume and symmetry after the first, areola after the second). Most of the reconstructions are done by simple implantation of a prosthesis. When local conditions require a flap, the latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous has been the best choice for years, but the lower rectus flap is now taking over, as it gives the advantage of reconstructing a breast with autologous tissue.     

Breast conserving surgery with primary volume replacement using a lateral tissue flap

Breast conserving surgery (BCS) is now a standard surgical treatment for early breast cancer. The number of patients with tumors under 3 cm who underwent breast conserving surgery overtook the number of patients who underwent total mastectomy for the first time in Japan in 2003. We have been employing breast conserving surgery with primary reconstruction using a lateral tissue flap (LTF), and have performed breast conserving surgery for 266 patients from 1990 to 2002. The incidence of local relapse was 5.6%. Although we did not irradiate a low risk group of 101 patients, our method is not inferior to other reports in which all cases underwent irradiation. Primary reconstruction with LTF has three advantages. The first is that we can avoid poly-surgery for breast reconstruction. The second is that the volume of the graft is maintained longer than reconstruction with a musculo-cutaneous flap. The third is that patients can avoid allergic reactions or granulomas as seen with artificial prosthesies. In conclusion, breast conserving surgery with immediate volume replacement with a LTF is a reasonable surgical procedure and has the advantage of avoiding unnecessary surgical procedures for reconstruction and surgical invasion without delaying the diagnosis of local relapse. Moreover, an adequate assessment of risk can spare low risk groups irradiation.     

Irradiation en situation postopératoire après reconstruction mammaire

Immediate breast reconstruction versus delayed breast reconstruction improves quality of life of breast cancer patients undergoing total mastectomy without impacting oncologic outcomes. Two types of immediate reconstruction are possible, implant-based reconstruction or autologous reconstruction. These reconstructions interpose a tissue in the operating bed, which modifies target volume definition compared to a wall without reconstruction Post mastectomy radiotherapy increases the rate of postoperative complications for both surgical procedures. Recent guidelines were published about target volume definition in the post mastectomy setting after implant-based reconstruction. Guidelines about target volume definition after autologous reconstruction are still awaited. The aim of our work is to present the different surgical procedures for immediate breast reconstruction, their complications, and the definition of the postmastectomy target volume.     

Skin sparing mastectomy: Technique and suggested methods of reconstruction

AimTo demonstrate the feasibility and accessibility of performing adequate mastectomy to extirpate the breast tissue, along with en-block formal axillary dissection performed from within the same incision. We also compared different methods of immediate breast reconstruction used to fill the skin envelope to achieve the best aesthetic results.Methods38 patients with breast cancer underwent skin-sparing mastectomy with formal axillary clearance, through a circum-areolar incision. Immediate breast reconstruction was performed using different techniques to fill in the skin envelope. Two reconstruction groups were assigned; group 1: Autologus tissue transfer only (n = 24), and group 2: implant augmentation (n = 14).Autologus tissue transferThe techniques used included filling in the skin envelope using Extended Latissimus Dorsi flap (18 patients) and Pedicled TRAM flap (6 patients).Augmentation with implantsSubpectoral implants(4 patients), a rounded implant placed under the pectoralis major muscle to augment an LD reconstructed breast. LD pocket (10 patients), an anatomical implant placed over the pectoralis major muscle within a pocket created by the LD flap. No contra-lateral procedure was performed in any of the cases to achieve symmetry.ResultsAll cases underwent adequate excision of the breast tissue along with en-block complete axillary clearance (when indicated), without the need for an additional axillary incision.Eighteen patients underwent reconstruction using extended LD flaps only, six had TRAM flaps, four had augmentation using implants placed below the pectoralis muscle along with LD flaps, and ten had implants placed within the LD pocket.Breast shape, volume and contour were successfully restored in all patients.Adequate degree of ptosis was achieved, to ensure maximal symmetry.ConclusionsSkin Sparing mastectomy through a circum-areolar incision has proven to be a safe and feasible option for the management of breast cancer in Egyptian women, offering them adequate oncologic control and optimum cosmetic outcome through preservation of the skin envelope of the breast when ever indicated. Our patients can benefit from safe surgery and have good cosmetic outcomeby applying different reconstructive techniques.     

乳腺癌术后可扩张假体与自体组织乳房重建的临床比较

目的:探讨并比较分析保留皮肤乳腺切除术后,应用即刻可扩张假体植入乳房重建与即刻自体组织乳房重建的手术方法、效果及并发症.方法:60例患者行保留皮肤的乳腺改良根治术后乳房重建,其中可扩张假体植入重建43例,即刻自体组织重建17例.根据乳房的体积、形状、与对侧乳房的对称性比较及患者满意度,评价两种手术的效果.结果:随访12个月,可扩张假体乳房重建组到达良好以上为93％,自体组织重建组为86％,两种重建方法治疗效果差异无统计学意义.可扩张假体植入乳房重建安全可靠,手术效果好,并发症少.结论:可扩张假体植入即刻乳房重建扩大了假体植入乳房重建的手术适应证,是一种值得推广的手术方式.     

Breast reconstruction after mastectomy for cancer

Mastectomy is a mutilating but today unavoidable surgical procedure, that could be indicated as primary treatment of breast cancer, as prophylactic therapy in well selected high-risk patients, and in the management of treatment failure after breast-conserving therapy. Breast reconstruction is a sure, safe, well-proved and aesthetically satisfactory alternative without untoward oncological consequences, that should be offered to all patients subjected to mastectomy, regardless of disease stage or salvage mastectomy status. It should be offered through a meticulous, honest, timeless and complete discussion, with an open and respectful attitude toward the final decision of the patients: breast reconstruction is not for every patient.     

Breast reconstruction with the TRAM flap: pedicled and free

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is a ubiquitous disease affecting one in seven women. While breast conservation techniques are available for local control of the disease for many patients, not all patients are good candidates for these techniques. Mastectomy, therefore, remains a common method of breast cancer treatment. Methods of reconstruction include implant reconstruction and autogenous reconstruction. The advantages of autogenous reconstruction include the creation of a soft, ptotic breast mound, which tends to match a native contralateral breast both in and out of bra support. Autogenous reconstructions do not tend to change with time and usually do not require periodic revision as seen in implant reconstructions. METHODS: The most common method of autogenous reconstruction is the TRAM flap, either pedicled or free. The TRAM flap employs the redundant excess lower abdominal tissue typically removed during a cosmetic abdominoplasty. This tissue is brought to the mastectomy defect as a pedicled flap, passing subcutaneously from the upper abdomen and into the defect site. The pedicled flap is based upon the superior epigastric vessels. A free TRAM is harvested with the overlying muscle and the attached inferior epigastric vessels. This flap is completely separated from the abdomen and brought to the chest defect where it is anastomosed to either the thoracodorsal or internal mammary vessels. The donor defect within the abdominal wall is repaired with an inlay mesh with both the pedicled and free techniques. RESULTS: Patient selection criteria usually help determine which technique is used. The advantage of the free flap technique is improved blood supply to the skin island. The free flap, therefore, is used in patients at higher risk for partial flap loss with the pedicled technique. Such high-risk patients include smokers, the obese, patients with significant medical comorbidities, and patients with prior abdominal surgery. Patients without these risk factors can be expected to achieve good results with either the pedicled or free flap technique. CONCLUSION: Autogenous breast reconstruction with the TRAM flap achieves long lasting satisfactory results in most patients with the creation of a soft, naturally ptotic breast mound, which typically matches well a contralateral native breast.     

Breast reconstruction following mastectomy for invasive breast cancer by free flaps from the abdomen is oncologically safe

Aims

To report the long-term results of oncological safety of breast reconstruction by autologous tissue following mastectomy for invasive breast cancer.

Methods

One-hundred-fifty-six consecutive patients with invasive breast cancer treated with mastectomy and reconstruction by autologous tissue were reviewed throughout (from 1987 to 2003 with median follow up time of 66 months).

Results

Median patient age was 45.9 years (range 26–68). The 157 observed tumors had mean diameter of 25 ± 19 mm, 70 of them were poorly differentiated, and 137 were invasive ductal carcinoma. Multifocal disease was present in 44 patients. Breast reconstruction was carried out only by autologous tissue (free flaps were used in 95% and free TRAM flap transfer was the most common reconstructive procedure). There was only one local recurrence as first site of recurrence, thus yielding a local recurrence rate of 0.6%.

Conclusions

Breast reconstruction by autologous tissue following mastectomy for invasive breast cancer is an oncologically safe procedure.     

腹部皮瓣在乳房重建中的应用

乳腺癌已经成为严重危害女性身心健康的恶性肿瘤,其发病率高居榜首,且有年轻化的趋势。现阶段随着医疗的不断进步,人们越来越重视乳房的缺失对患者心理、形体造成的伤害,所以乳腺癌的外科治疗已经由传统的根治性手术朝着保乳、乳房重建的手术模式发展。国内外众多医疗机构针对乳房重建开展了大量研究和实践,根据重建填充物的不同,可以将乳房重建分为自体组织重建和植入物重建,而自体组织重建又可分为腹部皮瓣、背部皮瓣、腰部皮瓣、臀部皮瓣及腿部皮瓣,其中腹部皮瓣因其血供好、组织量够大、远期效果好且具有腹部塑型的作用被广泛用于乳房重建及胸壁缺损的修复。本文将应用腹部皮瓣进行乳房重建的技术要点和相关并发症进行总结,旨在探讨腹部皮瓣乳房重建的最新进展。     

Nipple-sparing mastectomy. Preliminary results

Nipple-sparing mastectomy (NSM) combines a skin-sparing mastectomy with preservation of the Nipple Areola Complex (NAC), intraoperative pathological assessment of the nipple tissue core, and immediate reconstruction, thereby permitting better cosmesis for patients undergoing total mastectomy. Radiotherapy of the NAC was carried out in every single patient after surgery. The procedure was first performed on selected patients following a clinical research protocol. From January 2003 to June 2004, 10 patients underwent nipple sparing mastectomy followed by reconstruction (4 of them decided also to undergo a prophylactic mastectomy on the other breast) at the Breast Unit, Policlinico Monteluce, Perugia, Italy. Patients had been accurately selected before the operation following some criteria previously assessed by a team of specialists including the breast surgeon, the oncological physician, the radiotherapist and the plastic surgeon. Histology of the 10 NSMs confirmed invasive carcinoma in 3 cases and in situ carcinoma in the remainder. Superficial necrosis of the NAC that settled down spontaneously without consequences occurred in 2 cases; loss of sensitivity of the NAC in 4 patients; 1 patient developed haematoma. No asymmetry was reported. All women were clear of cancer after the treatment. Nipple-sparing mastectomy is the procedure of choice on selected patients.