Clinical experience in allogeneic vascularized bone and joint allografting

The allotransplantation of vascularized femoral diaphyses and total knee joints is a novel approach in orthopedic surgery. Allogeneic femoral diaphyses were transplanted into three patients suffering from chondrosarcoma or posttraumatic defects. Total knee joints allografts were transplanted in five patients with large bone defects of the knee and loss of the extensor apparatus caused either by major trauma alone or infection after a major trauma. Bone segments and total joints were harvested from multi-organ donors, perfused with UW-solution and transplanted within cold ischemia times of 18-25 h. Patients were immunosuppressed postoperatively primarily with cyclosporine (Cyclosporin A) and azathioprine. Two allografts (1 femur, 1 knee) were lost due to infections. Seven of the eight patients are able to walk with full weight-bearing posttransplant. Two of the patients with transplanted joint allografts subsequently received total knee arthroplasty implantations. Vascularized bone and joint allotransplantation may serve as a last line of defense treatment before considering lower limb amputation.     

游离皮瓣在组合移植中的应用

目的 探讨游离皮瓣在组合移植中的应用及其临床效果。方法1991年1月～2003年12月，行皮瓣或肌皮瓣的组合移植手术56例，其中男37例，女19例。年龄5～41岁，平均27．6岁。分别修复肢体特大面积软组织缺损、大面积皮肤和节段性长管状骨复合缺损，实现合并皮肤缺损的拇指缺失的一期修复和再造。移植的组织包括背阔肌肌皮瓣、肩胛皮瓣、股外侧皮瓣、拇趾皮肤趾甲瓣以及腓骨。移植组织的共同血管蒂与受区血管直接吻合建立血液循环者35例，以桥式交叉方式与健侧肢体选定的血管吻合建立临时血液供应者21例。结果所有患者获随访10～128个月，平均28个月，除2例背阔肌肌皮瓣与游离腓骨组合移植失败外，余均成活。涉及骨缺损修复成功的32例，移植的腓骨平均术后14．5周与宿主骨连接。术后修复和重建的肢体均恢复负重和活动功能；其中1例小腿皮肤与骨骼复合缺损成功修复3年后，因足趾压迫性溃疡而要求截肢。结论游离皮瓣在组合移植中的应用能有效实现肢体复杂组织缺损的修复和复杂缺失的再造。     

Vascularized fibula transplantation in orthopedic oncology. Personal experience and review of the literature

Primary malignant bone tumors can be treated predominantly with limb salvage. After resection of large articular segments adjacent to the dia- or metaphysis of long bones modular endoprosthetic devices are most commonly used for reconstruction. In case non-vascularized corticocancellous bone is transplanted in order to bridge extensive bone defects, the risk of pseudarthrosis and fracture of the donor bone is significantly higher in comparison to a free vascularized transplant. From 1988 until 1999 we treated 20 patients with extensive bone defects after resection of tumors affecting the upper and lower extremity using a vascularized fibular graft. In this retrospective analysis we collected the data focusing on bone integration and functional outcome. The graft union was classified according to the standards of the "International Symposium of Limb Salvage". Evaluation of the functional outcome was quantified using the Enneking-score. The stabilisation of the transplant was obtained exclusively by plate fixation in the upper extremity. In 10 in a total of 12 patients the reconstruction using a vascularized fibula transfer was reinforced with an allograft in the lower extremity. The functional evaluation score reached 73% of normal function at the last follow-up. After 18 months the radiographic evaluation of graft union was "excellent" in 75%, "good" in 11%, "fair" in 6% and "poor" in 9% according to the criteria of the ISOLS. Main complications were graft fracture in of 15% and pseudarthrosis in 14.3%. Reconstruction of extensive bone defects using free vascularized fibula grafts are a demanding operative procedure. The procedure combines a biologic form of reconstruction with a legitimate expectation of good long term outcome and a relatively low rate of complications.     

成人双腓骨游离移植修复股骨远端巨大骨缺损

目的探讨不同原因所致股骨远端巨大骨缺损的治疗手段及疗效. 方法 1998年2月～2002年12月对6例患者(年龄19～37岁)股骨下端骨肿瘤切除术后、骨髓炎及外伤性骨缺损,采用吻合血管的双腓骨移植,在股骨远端及胫骨关节面切除后植骨,以螺钉固定,两腓骨相对侧骨膜切开,骨皮质紧贴并缝合骨膜. 结果术后获随访13个月～5年7个月,平均3年4个月,移植骨生长良好,能完全负重,其中1例随访至5年7个月时X线片见双腓骨骨皮质之间完全愈合,并显示双腓骨出现髓腔再通,融为一个髓腔,且负重能力更强. 结论股骨下端骨缺损用双腓骨移植治疗,增强了骨的稳定性,但膝关节融合,丧失了关节功能.     

Monitoring island flap for fibular graft in 30 patients with long bone defects

To study the effect of vascularized fibulargraft on large defects of long bones and the monitoringmethod for the vascular status of the grafted fibula.     

复合骨移植修复骨肿瘤切除后大段骨关节缺损

目的 报道复合骨移植修复骨肿瘤切除后大段骨关节缺损的临床疗效。方法 2001年1月-2002年12月应用带监测皮岛的自体腓骨与大段同种异体深低温冷冻骨关节复合移植修复骨肿瘤切除后大段骨关节缺损10例。结果 10例均得到随访，随访时间5～24个月。移植的自体腓骨长度最长28cm，最短15cm。8例在术后3个月即有影像学骨性愈合，10例均于术后半年完全负重和邻近关节自由活动，术后超过1年的5例均已拆除内固定，术后1年均完全愈合。结论 带监测皮岛的自体腓骨与大段同种异体深低温冷冻骨关节复合移植是修复骨肿瘤切除后大段骨关节缺损的有效且可靠的方法，可用于骨肿瘤保肢术中。     

Long‐term engraftment and function of transplanted pancreatic islets in vascularized segments of small intestine

This study evaluated the potential of vascularized small intestinal segments for pancreatic islet transplantation. Islets isolated from Lewis rats were transplanted into diabetic syngeneic recipients. Segments of small intestine were prepared by denudation of the mucosal layer prior to implantation of pancreatic islets into the segments. Animal groups were established to determine engraftment, survival and function of islets transplanted into either intestinal segments or portal vein over up to 60 days. We found transplantation of functionally intact pancreatic islets into small intestinal segments was well tolerated. Transplanted islets were rapidly engrafted in intestinal segments as demonstrated vascularization and expression of insulin and glucagon throughout the 60‐day duration of the studies. Transplantation of islets restored euglycemia in diabetic rats, which was similar to animals receiving islets intraportally. Moreover, animals treated with islet transplants showed normal responses to glucose challenges. Removal of graft‐bearing intestinal segments led to recurrence of hyperglycemia indicating that transplanted islets were responsible for improved outcomes. Therefore, we concluded that vascularized intestinal segments supported reorganization, survival and function of transplanted islets with therapeutic efficacy in streptozotocin‐treated diabetic rats. The approach described here will be appropriate for studying islet biogenesis, reorganization and function, including for cell therapy applications.     

A solution to the vessel shortage during free vascularized fibular grafting for reconstructing infected bone defects of the femur: Bridging with vein transplantation

PurposeThe present study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and clinical efficacy of bridging vein transplantation to deal with the vessel shortage during free vascularized fibular grafting for reconstructing infected bone defects of the femur.MethodsTwelve patients (aged 15–58 years) with infected bone defects of the femur (between 6.0 and 18.0 cm) were recruited in this study. Vacuum sealing drainage were applied after extensive debridement of the infected bone defects and irrigated with 0.9% sodium chloride solution for 1–2 weeks. After the drainage was clear and the focal infections were controlled, the free vascularized fibula was harvested for reconstructing the femoral bone defects. The vascularized fibula was grafted and fixated appropriately at the recipient site. The autogenous great saphenous vein was harvested, one end was anastomosed and bridged the vascular pedicles of the fibular grafts, and the other end anastomosed the artery and/or the vein in the recipient healthy site.ResultsMean length of vein transplantation with vascularized fibular graft was 10.2 cm (range 7–15 cm). All patients had good radiological healing without recorded nonunion or malunion. No patient developed deep infection or implant failure. Primary bone healing was achieved in 10 patients; however, 2 grafted fibular formed pseudarthrosis with the recipient femoral and then healed after a secondary surgery. One patient suffered from graft stress fracture after bone healing and healed after external fixation. After the mean follow-up of 30 months (9–72 months), according to the Enneking scoring system, clinical outcomes were excellent in 7 patients, good in 4 and fair in one. The functional recovery rate of the lesion limb was 89.4%.ConclusionsFree vascularized fibular graft with vein transplantation bridged vascular pedicle can effectively repair the infected bone, improve blood supply to the bone defect site, and help control infection. It is a feasible and effective treatment for infected bone defects of the femur with poor soft tissue conditions, or blood supply vessel shortage.     

Free vascularized fibula grafts in surgery of the upper limb

Twenty patients with intractable diseases in the upper extremity were treated using free vascularized fibula grafts. There were 13 men and seven women. Three patients had traumatic bone defects, five had post-traumatic nonunions, two had congenital pseudoarthroses, seven had defects after tumor resection, and three had other lesions. The reconstructed sites were the humerus in two patients, the radius and/or ulna in 17, and the metacarpal and phalangeal bones in one. The length of the bone defect ranged from 3 to 18 cm (mean: 8.4 cm). Follow-up periods ranged from 6 to 204 months. No patient required additional bone grafts. The mean period required to obtain radiographic bone union was 4.4 months. There were no cases with fractures of the grafted bone, but malunion occurred in four cases. The vascularized fibula graft is indicated in patients with large bone defects or intractable nonunions in the humerus, radius, and/or ulna.     

四种不同类型带血供腓骨移植的临床应用

作者分别采用膝下外血管、腓血管为蒂的游离腓骨移植和以腓动脉为蒂的腓骨顺行或逆行转位移植,治疗13例炎症、肿瘤、先天性畸型造成的尺桡骨(包括骨骺)缺损。结果:以膝下外血管为蒂的腓骨上段骨(骨骺)移植,修复桡骨远端缺损,重建桡腕关节疗效满意,1例骨骺移植,获较好的继续生长,随访3年,与对侧等长,以腓动脉为蒂的腓骨干移植,无论是游离或转位移植,用于修复长度〉6cm的长骨缺损疗效满意。     

Vascularized fibula transfer for lower limb reconstruction

Massive bony defects of the lower extremity are usually the result of high-energy trauma, tumor resection, or severe sepsis. Vascularized fibular grafts are useful in the reconstruction of large skeletal defects, especially in cases of scarred and avascular recipient sites, or in patients with combined bone and soft-tissue defects. Microvascular free fibula transfer is considered the most suitable autograft for reconstruction of the middle tibia because of its long cylindrical straight shape, mechanical strength, predictable vascular pedicle, and hypertrophy potential. The ability to fold the free fibula into two segments or to combine it with massive allografts is a useful technique for reconstruction of massive bone defects of the femur or proximal tibia. It can also be transferred with skin, fascia, or muscle as a composite flap. Proximal epiphyseal fibula transfer has the potential for longitudinal growth and can be used in the hip joint remodeling procedures. Complications can be minimized by careful preoperative planning of the procedure, meticulous intraoperative microsurgical techniques, and strict postoperative rehabilitation protocols. This literature review highlights the different surgical techniques, indications, results, factors influencing the outcome, and major complications of free vascularized fibular graft for management of skeletal or composite defects of the lower limb.     

Radial forearm free tissue transfer reduces complications in salvage skull base surgery

OBJECTIVE: Patients who undergo skull base resection after prior surgery or radiation may be at high risk for complications when local flaps alone are used for reconstruction. To determine whether the complication rate could be reduced, fasciocutaneous free tissue transfer was used to reinforce the dural closure in patients who had prior skull base surgery or radiation. METHODS: This study is a case series of 20 patients (14 males, 6 females, aged 8-79 years of age with a mean of 47.7 years) from 1997 to 2001 who had prior skull base surgery or radiation, and underwent salvage skull base resection without large volume defects. All patients had a radial forearm free tissue transfer to reinforce the dural closure. Six patients had an osseous component to the forearm flap to provide vascularized bone to the orbital rim. RESULTS: The overall local complication rate was 35%. Three patients (15%) had major complications including 1 case of meningitis, 1 case of cerebrospinal fluid leak, and 1 case of a flap requiring venous salvage. There were no flap failures, 1 idiopathic median nerve palsy, and no pathologic radius bone fractures. CONCLUSION: Reconstruction with fasciocutaneous free tissue transfer for high-risk patients with low-volume dural defects following skull base resection can minimize the risk of major postoperative complications. EBM RATING: C.     

The versatility of the free fibula flap in the management of traumatic long bone defects

The free fibula flap has been used to treat ten patients with important long bone defects (mean length 14 cm) following severe trauma. Defects in all the long bones of the limbs have been treated by this technique. Five free osseous and five osteocutaneous flaps were performed. Primary skeletal union occurred at 17 bone junctions (85 per cent) within 5 months. No secondary grafting procedures were required. The mean delay in referral was 17 months and eight patients had already undergone three or more unsuccessful surgical procedures to promote union. The versatility of the vascularized free fibula flap is presented as a one-stage reconstruction for large bony and soft tissue defects, stressing the importance of prompt referral and recognition of cases. A combined orthopaedic and plastic surgical approach to these patients is advisable from the onset.     

改进法腓骨移植治疗胫骨及周围皮肤软组织缺损

改进切取带血管腓骨及其复合组织瓣方法治疗合并胫前及周围皮肤软组织条件不良的胫骨骨缺损。方法：采用改进法行带血管腓骨及复合组织皮瓣的切取,术中先锯断两端腓骨再行带肌袖腓骨的切取和腓动静脉血管蒂的显露。为保障移植腓骨的血运,腓动脉两断端均与受区胫前动脉吻合。结果：术中无１例损伤腓动静脉,切取腓骨时间在２０～４０ｍｉｎ,１６例腓骨均一期骨愈合。结论：该改进法切取腓骨具有手术出血量少、解剖清晰、手术时间较常规方法极大缩短的优点。腓骨复合组织瓣移植法行植骨的同时可修复胫前皮肤软组织缺损,并可对移植腓骨的血运情况进行监测。     

Vascularized bone autografts. Experience with 41 cases

Forty-one autogenous vascularized bone grafts have been performed by the authors since 1976. Twenty-two free vascularized fibular grafts were performed in a lower extremity and ten in an upper extremity. Ten of these patients were treated for locally aggressive, benign, or low-grade malignant bone tumors, while the remainder of the patients were treated for massive trauma-derived, segmental bone defects. The average length of the bone defect was 14.9 cm for tumor cases and 16.2 cm for trauma cases. In four patients (12.5%), the operation was unsuccessful, resulting in amputation. Nine patients were treated by osteocutaneous groin flaps, with one failure, resulting in amputation. Vascularized autogenous bone grafts transferred by microvascular anastomoses have been found an effective method of treatment for massive segmental bone defects.     

Reconstruction of a large mandible defect utilizing a full-thickness vascularized calvarial bone graft

Historically, mandibular reconstruction has always been a challenging problem. Various methods have been used including alloplasts such as stainless steel and titanium plates, trays filled with bone fragments, vascularized and non-vascularized bone grafts [1, 2]. Most methods have had variable success until the advent of microsurgical techniques. With the high success rate now obtainable utilizing free tissue transfer, mandible reconstruction has become a procedure with a more predictable outcome and most other reconstructive methods have now been abandoned. In spite of this, clinical situations do arise, such as with the case presented, where for one reason or another, microvascular techniques are either not available, not applicable or have failed. A case of mandibular reconstruction using a vascularized full-thickness calvarial bone graft is presented in which the end result was very satisfactory, both aesthetically and functionally. Received: 2 September 1997 / Accepted: 27 October 1997     

The free vascularized fibular graft for bridging large skeletal defects of the upper extremity

Large skeletal defects of the upper extremity pose a serious clinical problem with potentially deleterious effects on both function and viability of the limb. Recent advances in the microsurgical techniques involved in free vascularized bone transfers for complex limb injuries have dramatically improved limb salvage and musculoskeletal reconstruction. This study evaluates the clinical and radiographic results of 18 patients who underwent reconstruction of large defects of the long bones of the upper extremity with free vascularized fibular bone grafts. Mean patient age was 27 years (7-43 years) and mean follow-up was 4 years (1-10 years). The results confirm the value of vascularized fibular grafts for bridging large bone defects in the upper extremity.     

The optimum method for reconstruction of complex lateral oromandibular-cutaneous defects

BACKGROUND: Ablation of large intraoral cancers can create extensive through-and-through defects of the lateral face, resulting in loss of external facial skin, the lateral and anterior mandible, and the lateral mouth. Repair requires reconstruction of the lips, mandible, and full-thickness cheek defects. Ideal reconstruction with vascularized composite free flaps requires adequate bone and sufficiently large, yet versatile, skin flaps capable of resurfacing extensive intraoral and external defects. METHODS: A series of 12 patients with large lateral facial-mandibular defects is reviewed. All patients were treated for squamous cell carcinoma except for 1 patient with osteoblastic sarcoma of the mandible. All patients underwent primary reconstruction with various free flap techniques, including 6 scapular free flaps, 2 iliac crest free flaps, 3 free fibula flaps, and 1 radial forearm flap. Attainment of reconstructive goals, free flap survival, and complication rates were assessed. RESULTS: All defects were successfully reconstructed in the primary setting. No flap failures occurred. One venous occlusion was successfully salvaged. No orocutaneous fistulas or postoperative hematomas were noted. CONCLUSION: The reconstructive options for extensive defects of the lateral face and jaw are reviewed with attention to the complex three-dimensional soft tissue requirements. The superiority of the scapular composite flap is emphasized because this single free flap provides two independent and versatile skin paddles of optimal thickness in addition to adequate bone stock.     

Free vascularized bone grafts for reconstruction of traumatic bony defects of mandible and maxilla

Small bone defects of the mandible and maxilla can be surgically treated with conventional bone grafts provided local conditions are optimal for bone healing. However, when the bone defect is large, is associated with soft tissue loss, or when conventional bone grafting fails, a free vascularized bone graft often becomes an important alternative to ensure adequate healing. As free vascularized bone grafting is today considered a more reliable procedure for bone reconstruction, with success rates over 96%, we prefer to treat even smaller segmental bone defects with this technique when local conditions are less than ideal. The technique also allows for simultaneous insertion of osteointegrated dental implants at the time of vascularized bone grafting, thereby facilitating earlier total oral rehabilitation.     

Reconstruction of large traumatic segmental defects of the femur using segmental allograft with vascularized fibula inlay

Segmental defects of the distal femur following trauma pose a reconstructive challenge. A stable reconstruction capable of withstanding high forces while allowing early mobility is paramount. The Capanna technique of reconstruction combining allograft with vascularized bone graft provides such a construct and has been described for oncological resection. We describe a modified Capanna technique, the "inlay" construct. Three reconstructions were performed for distal femoral segmental loss following trauma. One patient had bilateral reconstructions. Bone defects measuring 11, 9, and 8 cm were reconstructed using a large segmental allograft and free fibular flap inlay assembly. Both patients made uneventful recoveries and achieved full weight-bearing without walking aids 6 months postreconstruction. Range of movement of each knee joint achieved at least 90 degrees of active flexion. We have shown that large segmental traumatic defects of the femur can be successfully reconstructed using segmental allograft with vascularized fibula inlay. This reconstruction provides early mechanical stability, protecting the fibula from fracturing and allowing axial loading of healing bone. The inlay assembly allows a large area of bony contact between allograft and vascularized bone, optimizing bony healing. It is a good alternative to other established techniques of managing significant segmental defects of the distal femur.